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A special issue of Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (ISSN 2077-1312). This special issue belongs to the section "Ocean Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2019) | Viewed by 84122

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. M. Dolores Esteban

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Guest Editor

1. Environment, Coast and Ocean Research Laboratory (ECOREL-UPM), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2. Department of Civil Engineering, European University of Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain
Interests: marine renewable energy; offshore wind; wave energy; maritime engineering; coastal engineering; offshore engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. José-Santos López-Gutiérrez

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Guest Editor

Departamento Ingeniería Civil: Hidráulica, Energía y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), CP 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: marine renewable energy; offshore wind; wave energy; maritime engineering; coastal engineering; offshore engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Vicente Negro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Dept. Ingeniería Civil: Hidráulica, Energía y Medio Ambiente, C/ Profesor Aranguren, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), CP 28040, Madrid, Spain
Interests: marine renewable energy; offshore wind; wave energy; maritime engineering; coastal engineering; offshore engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Offshore wind power is one of the renewable energy sources that is currently considered in the energy mix of some countries, and its use will increase in the future. At the end of 2017, there were a total of 18,814 MW of offshore wind installed worldwide, with the United Kingdom, Germany, China, Denmark and the Netherlands leading the way. The aim of this Special Issue is to put together papers that reflect the current state of the art of the offshore wind industry, covering all the aspects to be taken into account for the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance and dismantling of the facilities, etc.

This Special Issue invites contributions that deal with all the previously mentioned aspects (but is not limited to them), including the following topics: legislation, environmental, wind resources, foundations and support structures, wind turbine generators, electrical connection, etc.

Dr. M. Dolores Esteban
Dr. José-Santos López-Gutiérrez
Dr. Vicente Negro
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Offshore wind farm
Marine energy
Foundations
Wind resource
Wind turbine generators
Electrical connection
Numerical models
Physical models
Development, design and construction
Operation and maintenance

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Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 194 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Offshore Wind Farms

by María Dolores Esteban, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez and Vicente Negro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8020120 - 14 Feb 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

In 2018, we were approached by the editorial team of the Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (MDPI editorial) to act as guest editors of a Special Issue related to offshore wind energy [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Offshore Wind Farms)

Research

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17 pages, 4684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Effect of Load Mitigation of a Trailing-Edge Flap in a Large-Scale Offshore Wind Turbine

by Xin Cai, Yazhou Wang, Bofeng Xu and Junheng Feng

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8020072 - 23 Jan 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3588

Abstract

As a result of the large-scale trend of offshore wind turbines, wind shear and turbulent wind conditions cause significant fluctuations of the wind turbine’s torque and thrust, which significantly affect the service life of the wind turbine gearbox and the power output stability. The use of a trailing-edge flap is proposed as a supplement to the pitch control to mitigate the load fluctuations of large-scale offshore wind turbines. A wind turbine rotor model with a trailing-edge flap is established by using the free vortex wake (FVW) model. The effects of the deflection angle of the trailing-edge flap on the load distribution of the blades and wake flow field of the offshore wind turbine are analyzed. The wind turbine load response under the control of the trailing-edge flap is obtained by simulating shear wind and turbulent wind conditions. The results show that a better control effect can be achieved in the high wind speed condition because the average angle of attack of the blade profile is small. The trailing-edge flap significantly changes the load distribution of the blade and the wake field and mitigates the low-frequency torque and thrust fluctuations of the turbine rotor under the action of wind shear and turbulent wind. Full article

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18 pages, 4777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Riprap Scour Protection for Monopiles in Offshore Wind Farms

by M.Dolores Esteban, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez, Vicente Negro and Luciano Sanz

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(12), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7120440 - 2 Dec 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7763

Abstract

The scour phenomenon is critical for monopile structures in offshore wind farms. There are two possible strategies: allowing the development of scour holes around the monopile or avoiding it by placing scour protection. The last one is the most used up to now. This paper is focused on the determination of the weight of the stones forming the scour protection. There are some formulas for the design of these parameters, having a lot of uncertainties around them. Some of them were created for fluvial environment, with a different flow to the marine one. Other formulas were elaborated specifically for coastal structures, closer to the coast than offshore wind farms, and with dimensions completely different. This paper presents the analysis of three formulas: Isbash, corresponding to fluvial environment, and Soulsby, and De Vos, corresponding to marine environment. The results of the application of those formulas are compared with real data of scour protection systems showing good results in five offshore wind facilities in operation (Arklow Bank phase 1, Egmond aan Zee, Horns Rev phase 1, Princess Amalia, and Scroby Sands), giving conclusion about the uncertainties of the use of these formulas and recommendations for using them in offshore wind. Full article

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19 pages, 9668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model Tests on the Frequency Responses of Offshore Monopiles

by Rui He and Tao Zhu

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(12), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7120430 - 26 Nov 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3446

Abstract

Monopiles are widely used to support offshore wind turbines as a result of the extensive development of offshore wind energy in coastal areas of China. An offshore wind turbine is a typical high-rise structure sensitive to dynamic loads in ocean environment such as winds, water waves, currents and seismic waves. Most of the existing researches focus on elastic vibration analysis, bearing capacity or cyclic degradation problems. There’re very few studies on vibration of monopiles, especially considering the influence of static loads with different amplitudes, directions, and loading-unloading-reloading processes. In this paper, laboratory-scale 1 g model tests for a monopile in dry sands were carried out to investigate the frequency responses of the monopile under different loading conditions. The bearing capacities of the model monopile were obtained as references, and dynamic loads and static loads with different amplitudes were then applied to the monopile. It was found that (1) the first resonant frequency of the monopile decreases with the increase of dynamic load amplitudes; (2) the first resonant frequency of the monopile steadily increases under the lateral static load and loading-unloading-reloading processes; (3) the frequency responses of the monopile with static loads in different directions are also quite different; (4) damping of the monopile is influenced by the load amplitudes, load frequencies, load directions and soil conditions. Besides, all the tests were conducted in both loose sand and dense sand, and the results are almost consistent in general but more obvious in the dense sand case. Full article

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18 pages, 2494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Offshore Structures Based on Response Spectrum of Ice Force

by Yingzhou Liu, Xin Li and Youwei Zhang

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(11), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7110417 - 14 Nov 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

With the development of large-scale offshore projects, sea ice is a potential threat to the safety of offshore structures. The main forms of damage to bottom-fixed offshore structures under sea ice are crushing failure and bending failure. Referred to as the concept of seismic response spectrums, the design response spectrum of offshore structures induced by the crushing and bending ice failure is presented. Selecting the Bohai Sea in China as an example, the sea areas were divided into different ice zones due to the different sea ice parameters. Based on the crushing and bending failure power spectral densities of ice force, a large amount of ice force time-history samples are firstly generated for each ice zone. The time-history of the maximum responses of a series of single degree of freedom systems with different natural frequencies under the ice force are calculated and subsequently, a response spectrum curve is obtained. Finally, by fitting all the response spectrum curves from different samples, the design response spectrum is generated for each ice zone. The ice force influence coefficients for crushing and bending failure are obtained, which can be used to estimate the stochastic sea ice force acting on a structure conveniently in a static way. A comparison of the proposed response spectrum method with the Monte Carlo method by a numerical example shows good agreement. Full article

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15 pages, 9641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Transient Overvoltage of Offshore Wind Farm Considering Different Electrical Characteristics of Vacuum Circuit Breaker

by Zikai Zhou, Yaxun Guo, Xiaofeng Jiang, Gang Liu, Wenhu Tang, Honglei Deng, Xiaohua Li and Ming Zheng

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(11), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7110415 - 13 Nov 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

For the study of transient overvoltage (TOV) in an offshore wind farm (OWF) collector system caused by switching off vacuum circuit breakers (VCBs), a simplified experimental platform of OWF medium-voltage (MV) cable collector system was established in this paper to conduct switching operation tests of VCB and obtain the characteristic parameters for VCB, especially dielectric strength parameters; also, the effectiveness of the VCB reignition model was verified. Then, PSCAD/EMTDC was used to construct the MV collector system of the OWF, and the effects of normal switching and fault switching on TOV amplitude, steepness, and the total number of reignition of the VCB were studied, respectively, with the experimental parameters and traditional parameters of dielectric strength of the VCB. The simulation results show that when the VCB is at the tower bottom, the overvoltage amplitude generated by the normal switching is the largest, which is 1.83 p.u., and the overvoltage steepness of the fault switching is the largest, up to 142 kV/μs. The overvoltage amplitude and steepness caused by switching off VCB at the tower bottom faultily with traditional parameters are about 2 and 1.5 times of the experimental parameters under the same operating condition. Full article

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23 pages, 1152 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Offshore Wind Power Integration into Future Power Systems: Overview and Trends

by Ana Fernández-Guillamón, Kaushik Das, Nicolaos A. Cutululis and Ángel Molina-García

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(11), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7110399 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 12961

Abstract

Nowadays, wind is considered as a remarkable renewable energy source to be implemented in power systems. Most wind power plant experiences have been based on onshore installations, as they are considered as a mature technological solution by the electricity sector. However, future power scenarios and roadmaps promote offshore power plants as an alternative and additional power generation source, especially in some regions such as the North and Baltic seas. According to this framework, the present paper discusses and reviews trends and perspectives of offshore wind power plants for massive offshore wind power integration into future power systems. Different offshore trends, including turbine capacity, wind power plant capacity as well as water depth and distance from the shore, are discussed. In addition, electrical transmission high voltage alternating current (HVAC) and high voltage direct current (HVDC) solutions are described by considering the advantages and technical limitations of these alternatives. Several future advancements focused on increasing the offshore wind energy capacity currently under analysis are also included in the paper. Full article

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21 pages, 4801 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Categorization and Analysis of Relevant Factors for Optimal Locations in Onshore and Offshore Wind Power Plants: A Taxonomic Review

by Isabel C. Gil-García, M. Socorro García-Cascales, Ana Fernández-Guillamón and Angel Molina-García

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(11), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7110391 - 3 Nov 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4190

Abstract

Wind power is widely considered to be a qualified renewable, clean, ecological and inexhaustible resource that is becoming a leader in the current energy transition process. It is a mature technology solution that was quickly developed and has been massively integrated into power systems in recent years. Indeed, a remarkable number of renewable integration policies have been promoted by different governments and countries. With the aim of maximizing the power given by wind resources, the locations of both onshore and offshore wind power plants must be optimized following a sort of different criteria. Under this scenario, a number of factors and decision criteria in the evaluation and selection of locations can be identified. Moreover, the relevant wind power increasing in the power generation mix is addressed, along with a standardization of factors and decision criteria in the optimization and selection of such optimal locations. In this context, this paper describes a systematic review and meta-analysis combining most of the contributions and studies proposed during the last decade. Thus, our aim is focused on reviewing and categorizing all factors to be considered for optimal location estimation, pointing out the differences among the selected factors and the decision criteria for onshore and offshore wind power plants. In addition, our review also includes an analysis of the representative key indicators for the contributions, such as the annual frequency of publications, geographical classification, analysis by category, evaluation method and determining factors. Full article

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13 pages, 924 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluation of Lebanon’s Offshore-Wind-Energy Potential

by Gabriel Ibarra-Berastegi, Alain Ulazia, Jon Saénz and Santos José González-Rojí

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(10), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7100361 - 10 Oct 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4535

Abstract

The only regional evaluation of Lebanese wind-energy potential (National Wind Atlas) dates back to 2011 and was carried out by a United Nations agency. In this work, data from the most recent reanalysis (ERA5) developed at the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF), corresponding to the 2010–2017 period, were used to evaluate Lebanese offshore-wind-energy potential. In the present study, wind power density associated to a SIEMENS 154/6 turbine was calculated with a horizontal resolution of 31 km and 1 hour time steps. This work incorporated the impact of air density changes into the calculations due to the seasonal evolution of pressure, temperature, and humidity. Observed average offshore air density

ρ_{0}

was 1.19

{kg / m}^{3}

for the 2010–2017 period, but if instead of

ρ_{0}

, hourly

ρ

values were used, seasonal oscillations of wind power density

(W P D)

represented differences in percentage terms ranging from −4% in summer to +3% in winter. ERA5 provides hourly wind, temperature, pressure, and dew-point temperature values that allowed us to calculate the hourly evolution of air density during this period and could also be used to accurately evaluate wind power density off the Lebanese coast. There was a significant gradient in wind power density along the shore, with the northern coastal area exhibiting the highest potential and reaching winter values of around 400

{W / m}^{2}

. Finally, this study suggests that the initial results provided by the National Wind Atlas overestimated the true offshore-wind-energy potential, thus highlighting the suitability of ERA5 as an accurate tool for similar tasks globally. Full article

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23 pages, 7951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Response for a Submerged Floating Offshore Wind Turbine with Different Mooring Configurations

by Yane Li, Conghuan Le, Hongyan Ding, Puyang Zhang and Jian Zhang

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(4), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7040115 - 22 Apr 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4721

Abstract

The paper discusses the effects of mooring configurations on the dynamic response of a submerged floating offshore wind turbine (SFOWT) for intermediate water depths. A coupled dynamic model of a wind turbine-tower-floating platform-mooring system is established, and the dynamic response of the platform, tensions in mooring lines, and bending moment at the tower base and blade root under four different mooring configurations are checked. A well-stabilized configuration (i.e., four vertical lines and 12 diagonal lines with an inclination angle of 30°) is selected to study the coupled dynamic responses of SFOWT with broken mooring lines, and in order to keep the safety of SFOWT under extreme sea-states, the pretension of the vertical mooring line has to increase from 1800–2780 kN. Results show that the optimized mooring system can provide larger restoring force, and the SFOWT has a smaller movement response under extreme sea-states; when the mooring lines in the upwind wave direction are broken, an increased motion response of the platform will be caused. However, there is no slack in the remaining mooring lines, and the SFOWT still has enough stability. Full article

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23 pages, 5126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Loads and Response of a Tension Leg Platform Wind Turbine with Non-Rotating Blades: An Experimental Study

by Timothy Murfet and Nagi Abdussamie

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7030056 - 27 Feb 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4027

Abstract

This paper describes model testing of a Tension Leg Platform Wind Turbine (TLPWT) with non-rotating blades to better understand its motion and tendon responses when subjected to combined wind and unidirectional regular wave conditions. The TLPWT structure is closely based on the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 5 MW concept. Multiple free decay tests were performed to evaluate the natural periods of the model in the key degrees of freedom, whilst Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs) were derived to show the motion and tendon characteristics. The natural periods in surge and pitch motions evaluated from the decay tests had a relatively close agreement to the theoretical values. Overall, the tested TLPWT model exhibited typical motion responses to that of a generalised TLP with significant surge offsets along with stiff heave and pitch motions. The maximum magnitudes for the RAOs of surge motion and all tendons occurred at the longest wave period of 1.23 s (~13.0 s at full-scale) tested in this study. From the attained results, there was evidence that static wind loading on the turbine structure had some impact on the motions and tendon response, particularly in the heave direction, with an average increase of 13.1% in motion amplitude for the tested wind conditions. The wind had a negligible effect on the surge motion and slightly decreased the tendon tensions in all tendons. The results also showed the set-down magnitudes amounting to approximately 2–5% of the offset. Furthermore, the waves are the dominant factor contributing to the set-down of the TLPWT, with a minimal contribution from the static wind loading. The results of this study could be used for calibrating numerical tools such as CFD codes. Full article

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Review

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18 pages, 2083 KiB

Open AccessReview

Foundations in Offshore Wind Farms: Evolution, Characteristics and Range of Use. Analysis of Main Dimensional Parameters in Monopile Foundations

by Sergio Sánchez, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez, Vicente Negro and M. Dolores Esteban

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(12), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7120441 - 2 Dec 2019

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 9605

Abstract

Renewable energies are the future, and offshore wind is undoubtedly one of the renewable energy sources for the future. Foundations of offshore wind turbines are essential for its right development. There are several types: monopiles, gravity-based structures, jackets, tripods, floating support, etc., being the first ones that are most used up to now. This manuscript begins with a review of the offshore wind power installed around the world and the exposition of the different types of foundations in the industry. For that, a database has been created, and all the data are being processed to be exposed in clear graphic summarizing the current use of the different foundation types, considering mainly distance to the coast and water depth. Later, the paper includes an analysis of the evolution and parameters of the design of monopiles, including wind turbine and monopile characteristics. Some monomials are considered in this specific analysis and also the soil type. So, a general view of the current state of monopile foundations is achieved, based on a database with the offshore wind farms in operation. Full article

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25 pages, 6246 KiB

Open AccessReview

What about Marine Renewable Energies in Spain?

by María Dolores Esteban, Juan Manuel Espada, José Marcos Ortega, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez and Vicente Negro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(8), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7080249 - 30 Jul 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6970

Abstract

Renewable energies play a fundamental role within the current political and social framework for minimizing the impacts of climate change. The ocean has a vast potential for generating energy and therefore, the marine renewable energies are included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These energies include wave, tidal, marine currents, ocean thermal, and osmotic. Moreover, it can also be included wind, solar, geothermal and biomass powers, which their main use is onshore, but in the near future their use at sea may be considered. The manuscript starts with a state-of-the-art review of the abovementioned marine renewable energy resources worldwide. The paper continues with a case study focused on the Spanish coast, divided into six regions: (I) Cantabrian, (II) Galician, (III) South Atlantic, (IV) Canary Islands, (V) Southern Mediterranean, and (VI) Northern Mediterranean. The results show that: (1) areas I and II are suitable for offshore wind, wave and biomass; (2) areas III and V are suitable for offshore wind, marine current and offshore solar; area IV is suitable for offshore wind, ocean wave and offshore solar; (3) and area VI is suitable for offshore wind, osmotic and offshore solar. This analysis can help politicians and technicians to plan the use of these resources in Spain. Full article

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14 pages, 4492 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Gravity-Based Foundations in the Offshore Wind Sector

by M. Dolores Esteban, José-Santos López-Gutiérrez and Vicente Negro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7(3), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7030064 - 12 Mar 2019

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 11309

Abstract

In recent years, the offshore wind industry has seen an important boost that is expected to continue in the coming years. In order for the offshore wind industry to achieve adequate development, it is essential to solve some existing uncertainties, some of which relate to foundations. These foundations are important for this type of project. As foundations represent approximately 35% of the total cost of an offshore wind project, it is essential that they receive special attention. There are different types of foundations that are used in the offshore wind industry. The most common types are steel monopiles, gravity-based structures (GBS), tripods, and jackets. However, there are some other types, such as suction caissons, tripiles, etc. For high water depths, the alternative to the previously mentioned foundations is the use of floating supports. Some offshore wind installations currently in operation have GBS-type foundations (also known as GBF: Gravity-based foundation). Although this typology has not been widely used until now, there is research that has highlighted its advantages over other types of foundation for both small and large water depth sites. There are no doubts over the importance of GBS. In fact, the offshore wind industry is trying to introduce improvements so as to turn GBF into a competitive foundation alternative, suitable for the widest ranges of water depth. The present article deals with GBS foundations. The article begins with the current state of the field, including not only the concepts of GBS constructed so far, but also other concepts that are in a less mature state of development. Furthermore, we also present a classification of this type of structure based on the GBS of offshore wind facilities that are currently in operation, as well as some reflections on future GBS alternatives. Full article

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