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State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Parasitic Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 28372

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jianhai Yin

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National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, China
Interests: parasitic diseases; insecticide resistance; antiparasitic drug; infection and immunity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Jian Li

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Guest Editor

School of Basic Medicine, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China
Interests: cerebral malaria; pathogen diagnosis; drug resistance; multi-omics; gut microbiome
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Wei Wang

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Guest Editor

Jiangsu Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Wuxi, China
Interests: tropical disease; vector control; drug resistance; -omics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Parasitic diseases, notably malaria, schistosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, lymphatic filariasis and hookworm disease, were historically highly prevalent in China, which caused widespread disease and social and economic burdens. Following the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the implementation of policies facilitated progress towards the elimination of parasitic diseases in the country. Lymphatic filariasis was eliminated in China in 2007, and in 2015, the elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem was achieved in China. Subsequently, China was certified as malaria-free by the World Health Organization in 2021. Nevertheless, there are still many challenges that must be faced in order to achieve the ambitious goal of parasitic disease elimination outlined in Health China 2030. The “X” factors include the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, sustained capability building (financial support and human resources), climate change, natural disasters (floods and earthquakes), human behaviors and imported pathogens and vectors. Imported, foodborne and emerging and re-emerging zoonotic parasitic diseases pose great threats to the sustainable control and elimination of parasitic diseases in China.

To improve our understanding of the current status of parasitic diseases and facilitate the management of these poverty-related diseases, a Special Issue entitled “State of the Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China” is now open for submission, and all submissions will be given full consideration for publication in Pathogens.

In this Special Issue, we call for papers pertaining to the latest knowledge on the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of emerging and re-emerging zoonotic and foodborne parasitic diseases, as well as the immune regulation and pathogenesis of these diseases and host–pathogen–vector interactions. This Special Issue is dedicated to the rapid publication and global dissemination of the latest findings regarding national parasitic disease control programs in China. In addition, the lessons and experiences from these control programs may contribute to the disease elimination program in disease-endemic countries worldwide.

Original and review articles pertaining to parasites and parasitic diseases are welcome, and interdisciplinary studies aiming to provide novel tools for parasitic disease elimination are preferred. This topic aims to bridge together policy makers, research scientists, clinical physicians, public health professionals and veterinarians that are working in the diverse discipline of parasitic diseases, thereby facilitating progress towards the elimination of parasitic diseases in China.

Dr. Jianhai Yin
Prof. Dr. Jian Li
Dr. Wei Wang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

emerging parasitic diseases
re-emerging parasitic diseases
zoonotic parasitic diseases
foodborne parasitic diseases
surveillance and response
diagnosis and treatment
omics
gut microbiota
artificial intelligence

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13 pages, 10189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blocking BAFF Alleviates Hepatic Fibrosis in Schistosoma japonicum-Infected Mice

by Panpan Dong, Congjin Mei, Yingying Yang, Yonghua Zhou, Yongliang Xu, Lijun Song and Chuanxin Yu

Pathogens 2023, 12(6), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12060793 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2939

Abstract

Schistosomiasis is an immunopathogenic disease characterized by egg granuloma and fibrosis. The hepatic fibrosis of schistosomiasis is caused by the coordinated action of local immune cells, liver-resident cells and related cytokines around the eggs of the liver. B-cell-activating factor (BAFF), expressed in many cells, is an essential factor for promoting the survival, differentiation, and maturation of cells. The overexpression of BAFF is closely related to many autoimmune diseases and fibrosis, but has not been reported to play a role in liver fibrosis caused by schistosomiasis. In the study, we found that, during Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) infection in mice, the level of BAFF and its receptor BAFF-R progressively increased, then decreased with the extension of infection time, which was consistent with the progression of hepatic granuloma and fibrosis. Anti-BAFF treatment attenuated the histopathological damage in the liver of infected mice. The average areas of individual granulomas and liver fibrosis in anti-BAFF treatment mice were significantly lower than those in control mice, respectively. Anti-BAFF treatment increased the IL-10, decreased IL-4, IL-6, IL-17A, TGF-β, and downregulated the antibody level against S. japonicum antigens. These results suggested that BAFF acts a strong player in the immunopathology of schistosomiasis. Anti-BAFF treatment may influence Th2 and Th17 responses, and reduce the inflammatory reaction and fibrosis of schistosomiasis liver egg granuloma. It is suggested that BAFF might be a prospective target for the development of new methods to treat schistosomiasis liver fibrosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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11 pages, 5113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Simple and Rapid Nucleic Acid Detection Method for Hookworm Identification

by Xin Ding, Yougui Yang, Yingshu Zhang, Qiang Zhang, Fanzhen Mao and Yang Dai

Pathogens 2023, 12(4), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040630 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1796

Abstract

Hookworm infection is one of the most common neglected tropical diseases and is mainly found in tropical and subtropical areas. Two species of human hookworm are distributed in China, i.e., Ancylostoma duodenale (AD) and Necator americanus (NA). Background: Traditional microscopic technology such as the Kato-Katz method is not suitable for hookworm diagnosis due to the rapid degeneration of fragile hookworm eggs or for species identification of hookworm infection. The aim of the present study was to establish and evaluate a novel nucleic acid detection method based on recombinase-aided isothermal amplification (RAA) for the detection of hookworm infections and species identification. Methods: Based on the specific target gene sequences of hookworms (5.8S rRNA for AD and ITS2 for NA, respectively), we designed and synthesized amplification primers and fluorescence probes referring to the principle of the fluorescence recombinase-aided amplification (RAA) technique. Results: Each assay provided specific amplification of larval DNA from AD and NA by fluorescence RAA, and the detection limits in plasmids reached 10² copies and 10 copies, respectively. Genomic DNA of two hookworm species was successfully detected at a concentration of 0.1 pg/μL, revealing a high detection sensitivity. No positive amplification occurred for genomic DNA from crossed hookworm species and genomic DNA from Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, Strongyloides stercoralis, Schistosoma japonicum, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Clonorchis sinensis, revealing a satisfactory specificity. Fecal sample detection results demonstrated a similar efficacy to the Kato-Katz method; however, it had a greater sensitivity than the larvae culture method. Conclusion: A simple and rapid nucleic acid method was successfully established based on RAA, which improved the detection efficacy and species identification for human hookworm infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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11 pages, 2162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

rCsHscB Derived from Clonorchis sinensis: A Carcinogenic Liver Fluke Ameliorates LPS-Induced Acute Hepatic Injury by Repression of Inflammation

by Bo Zhang, Chunyang Fan, Qi Tan, Yuzhao Zhang, Qing Jiang, Qian Yu, Beibei Zhang, Kuiyang Zheng and Chao Yan

Pathogens 2022, 11(12), 1548; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11121548 - 15 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1834

Abstract

Sepsis-associated acute liver injury caused by spillovers of bacteria and endotoxins (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) into the liver remains a public health issue due to the lack of specific therapeutic approaches. Previous studies showed that the recombinant protein HscB (rCsHscB) of Clonorchis sinensis, a carcinogenic liver fluke, had an anti-inflammatory effect and could alleviate inflammatory diseases such as enteritis; however, whether it can prevent sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS is still unknown. In our current study, the therapeutic effects and the potential mechanisms of rCsHscB on LPS-induced acute liver injury were investigated both in vivo and in vitro. The data showed that rCsHscB prevented LPS-induced liver damage, as demonstrated by histopathological observation and hepatic damage markers (the activities of serum ALT and AST) in a murine model of sepsis-associated acute liver injury. rCsHscB also significantly reversed the high levels of serum IL-6 and MCP-1 induced by LPS. In addition, rCsHscB attenuated the production of LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α, in a macrophage cell line-RAW264.7, through possible mediation by the MAPK signaling pathway in vitro. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that rCsHscB derived from a fluke C. sinensis protects against sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS, which may be attributed to the inhibition of the MAPK signaling pathway. Our present study provides a potential therapeutic strategy for sepsis-associated acute liver injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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11 pages, 2389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Modelling Prediction of Recombinant Plasmodium falciparum K13-F446I and K13-C580Y Gene by AlphaFold Method and Heterologous Expression in Spodoptera frugiperda 9 Cells

by He Yan, Jun Feng and Min Chen

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1271; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111271 - 31 Oct 2022

Viewed by 2407

Abstract

P. falciparum Kelch 13 (Pfk13) is an essential protein that contains BTB and Kelch-repeat propeller domains (KRPD), which was predicted to bind substrate during ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway. However, the function of Pfk13 and the structural alterations associated with artemisinin resistance mutations remain unknown. Herein, we screened two proteins, namely Pfk13-F446I and Pfk13-C580Y, which are closely associated with artemisinin, for structural prediction analysis. The 389 amino acids from 1011 nt to 2178 nt of KRPD were cloned into pFastBac^TM1. The recombinant plasmids were heterologously expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda 9 cells (SF9) and a ~44 kDa protein band was yielded by SDS-PAGE and Western Blot. A total of five structure models were generated and predicted by AlphaFold for each protein. The models predicted that Pfk13-F446I would be located in the central protein cavity, proximal to mutations in cysteine residues primarily in β strands. Unlike Pfk13-F446I, the Pfk13-C580Y is located on the small channel that runs through the center of the K13 protein. Interestingly, the hydrogen bond between C580 and C533 in the wide type (WT) was not detected, suggesting that the hydrogen bond may be lost during the mutation. Besides, the Pfk13-F446I and Pfk13-C580Y mutation were found to add 11 and 9 hydrogen bonds variations that may lead to conformational change of the protein structure compared to WT, respectively. Future work should pay more attention to the binding characteristics of those mutations related with KPRD pockets and their binding substrates, which will further clarify the structure and function of Pfk13 and its mutant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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8 pages, 634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites in Dog Faecal Samples from Public Environments in Qinghai Province, China

by Xueyong Zhang, Yingna Jian, Yijuan Ma, Zhi Li, Yong Fu, Zhouzai Cairang, Xiaohong Wang, Hong Duo and Zhihong Guo

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1240; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111240 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1850

Abstract

Dogs are popular companions in our daily lives for company, hunting, protection or shepherding, but they also serve as reservoirs for zoonotic parasites. We analysed faecal samples from urban and rural environments in Qinghai Province on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites. A total of 682 faecal samples were collected from four urban and two rural environments from October 2019 to December 2020. The samples were analysed for common intestinal parasites using a species-specific PCR approach. The total number of samples with parasites was 40 (5.87%): 23 (3.37%) were positive for helminths, and 17 (2.49%) were positive for protozoa. The following parasites were identified, and their respective prevalence rates were calculated: Cryptosporidium canis (1.32%), Giardia duodenalis (1.17%, assemblages D (n = 6) and C (n = 2)), Taenia hydatigena (1.03%), Taenia multiceps (0.59%), Toxocara canis (0.59%), Echinococcus shiquicus (0.29%), Dipylidium caninum (0.29%), Taenia pisiformis (0.15%), Mesocestoides lineatus (0.15%), Trichuris vulpis (0.15%), and Ancylostoma spp. (0.15%). The overall prevalence was significantly higher in dog faecal samples from rural environments than in those from urban environments (16.19% vs. 3.99%). E. shiquicus, T. pisiformis, M. lineatus, T. vulpis, and Ancylostoma spp. were only found in dog faecal samples from rural environments. The results of the present study indicate that intestinal parasite-positive dogs are important sources of environmental contamination, suggesting a significant zoonotic infection risk in humans and other animals. This has implications for the ongoing control of intestinal parasite infections in dogs in Qinghai Province, China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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15 pages, 2516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Characterization of Antigenic Properties of Schistosoma japonicum Heat Shock Protein 90α Derived Peptides

by Chunxiang Shen, Xinyi Zhu, Xuejun Xu, Hao Chang, Yangyue Ni, Chen Li, Kaiyue He, Lin Chen, Lu Chen, Min Hou, Minjun Ji and Zhipeng Xu

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111238 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836

Abstract

It is known that schistosome-derived antigens induce innate and adaptive immune responses that are essential for the formation of hepatic immunopathology. Here, we screened and synthesized four peptides derived from Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) heat shock protein 90α (Sjp90α-1, -2, -3, and -4), which is widely expressed in adults and eggs of the genus S. japonicum and induces remarkable immune reactions. To define the antigenicity of these peptides, we stimulated splenocytes with peptides, and the results showed that only the Sjp90α-1 peptide could predominately induce the activation of dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages as well as alter the proportion of follicular helper T (Tfh) cells. Next, CD4⁺ T cells were purified and cocultured with mouse bone-marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) with or without Sjp90α-1 peptide stimulation in vitro, and the results showed that Sjp90α-1-stimulated BMDCs can significantly induce CD4⁺ T-cell differentiation into Tfh cells, while the direct stimulation of CD4⁺ T cells with Sjp90α-1 did not induce Tfh cells, indicating that the Sjp90α-1 peptide promotes Tfh cell differentiation depending on the presence of DCs. Furthermore, we selected and prepared an Sjp90α-1-peptide-based antibody and illustrated that it has excellent reactivity with the immunizing peptide and detects a single band of 29 kDa corresponding to the Sjp90α protein. The immunolocalization results showed that the protein recognized by this Sjp90α-1-peptide-based antibody is present in the mature eggs and the tegument of adults, implying that the parasite-derived peptide has a potential interaction with the host immune system. Finally, we evaluated antipeptide IgG antibodies and revealed a significantly higher level of anti-Sjp90α-1 peptide IgG antibodies in mice 3 weeks after S. japonicum infection. In conclusion, we illustrate that these synthetic peptides warrant further investigation by evaluating their antigen-specific immune response and their ability to efficiently induce Tfh cells. Moreover, they may constitute a potentially helpful method for the laboratory diagnosis of schistosomiasis japonica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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14 pages, 10225 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inhibition Effects of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and Its Derivatives against Atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- Mice through Anti-Inflammatory Response

by Yougui Yang, Xin Ding, Fuzhong Chen, Xiaomin Wu, Yuying Chen, Qiang Zhang, Jun Cao, Junhong Wang and Yang Dai

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101208 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3979

Abstract

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a dominant and growing cause of death and disability worldwide that involves inflammation from its inception to the emergence of complications. Studies have demonstrated that intervention with helminth infections or derived products could modulate the host immune response and effectively prevent or mitigate the onset and progression of inflammation-related diseases. Therefore, to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of atherosclerosis, we intervened in ApoE^-/- mice maintained on a high-fat diet with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (N. brasiliensis) infection and immunized with its derived products. We found that N. brasiliensis infection and its derived proteins had suitable protective effects both in the initial and progressive stages of atherosclerosis, effectively reducing aortic arch plaque areas and liver lipid contents and downregulating serum LDL levels, which may be associated with the significant upregulation of serum anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-4) and the down-regulation of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IFN-γ) in the serum. In conclusion, these data highlighted the effective regulatory role of N. brasiliensis and its derived proteins in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. This could provide a promising new avenue for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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8 pages, 899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies in Raw Milk and Sera of Cows in China

by Yu-Min Liu, Yang-Yang Zhang, Lu Wang, Hai-Yang Wang, Chun-Hua Li, Yu-Hang Jiang and Wu-Wen Sun

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101079 - 22 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1684

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide food-borne protozoa that has harmful influences on animal and human health. Raw milk containing T. gondii has been considered as one of the possible infectious sources for humans. Although China is one of the world’s leading milk consumers, there is still no study to investigate the seroprevalence of T. gondii in raw cow milk in China; especially for cows in rural areas. Thus, we conducted this study to examine the specific anti-T. gondii IgG-antibody in the raw milk and sera of domestic cows in China. In total, 894 cows were randomly selected from rural areas in northeastern China. The positive rate of T. gondii in the milk and serum samples were 6.38% (57/894) and 7.16% (64/894), respectively. Moreover, a history of abortion (OR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.11–3.72, p = 0.022) was identified as the only risk factor for T. gondii infection in the studied cows. This study investigated the seroprevalence of T. gondii in the raw milk and sera of cows in China; it provided timely and useful data for public health and food safety, especially in rural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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11 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory Culture and Life Cycle of Thelazia callipaeda in Intermediate and Definitive Hosts

by Lingjun Wang, Di Li, Changzhu Yin, Hongri Tang, Bo Luo, Rong Yan, Yujuan Shen and Hui Liu

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091066 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2952

Abstract

Human thelaziasis caused by Thelazia callipaeda is being increasingly reported worldwide. Notably, an epidemic trend is observed in Southwest China. Whether Phortica okadai found in Southwest China can act as a vector of T. callipaeda and human-derived T. callipaeda animal infections has not been widely reported. Here, P. okadai was maintained in a laboratory and experimentally infected with first-stage larvae collected from adult T. callipaeda that were isolated from infected human subjects. Dead P. okadai were subjected to PCR assay and dissected every two days to detect T. callipaeda. Subsequently, live flies were used to infect a rabbit. The infection procedures were performed once a day (20 min) for two weeks. The results show that L1 collected from the adult T. callipaeda could successfully parasitize P. okadai captured in Zunyi, a city in Southwest China, and developed into L3, and a rabbit was successfully infected with T. callipaeda using P. okadai as the intermediate host. The present study demonstrates a human-derived T. callipaeda infection in rabbits, through P. okadai, under laboratory conditions for the first time. These results provide insights into the transmission cycle of T. callipaeda and constitute a foundation to develop an effective treatment protocol for T. callipaeda infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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18 pages, 8178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying the Determinants of Distribution of Oncomelania hupensis Based on Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression Model along the Yangtze River in China

by Zhe Wang, Lu Liu, Liang Shi, Xinyao Wang, Jianfeng Zhang, Wei Li and Kun Yang

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 970; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11090970 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3705

Abstract

Background: As the unique intermediate host of Schistosoma japonicum, the geographical distribution of Oncomelania hupensis (O. hupensis) is an important index in the schistosomiasis surveillance system. This study comprehensively analyzed the pattern of snail distribution along the Yangtze River in Jiangsu Province and identified the dynamic determinants of the distribution of O. hupensis. Methods: Snail data from 2017 to 2021 in three cities (Nanjing, Zhenjiang, and Yangzhou) along the Yangtze River were obtained from the annual cross-sectional survey produced by the Jiangsu Institute of Parasitic Diseases. Spatial autocorrelation and hot-spot analysis were implemented to detect the spatio–temporal dynamics of O. hupensis distribution. Furthermore, 12 factors were used as independent variables to construct an ordinary least squares (OLS) model, a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model, and a geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) model to identify the determinants of the distribution of O. hupensis. The adjusted coefficients of determination (adjusted R², AICc, RSS) were used to evaluate the performance of the models. Results: In general, the distribution of O. hupensis had significant spatial aggregation in the past five years, and the density of O. hupensis increased eastwards in the Jiangsu section of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Relatively speaking, the distribution of O. hupensis wase spatially clustered from 2017 to 2021, that is, it was found that the border between Yangzhou and Zhenjiang was the high density agglomeration area of O. hupensis snails. According to the GTWR model, the density of O. hupensis was related to the normalized difference vegetation index, wetness, dryness, land surface temperature, elevation, slope, and distance to nearest river, which had a good explanatory power for the snail data in Yangzhou City (adjusted R² = 0.7039, AICc = 29.10, RSS = 6.81). Conclusions: The distribution of O. hupensis and the environmental factors in the Jiangsu section of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River had significant spatial aggregation. In different areas, the determinants affecting the distribution of O. hupensis were different, which could provide a scientific basis for precise prevention and control of O. hupensis. A GTWR model was prepared and used to identify the dynamic determinants for the distribution of O. hupensis and contribute to the national programs of control of schistosomiasis and other snail-borne diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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12 pages, 300 KiB

Open AccessReview

A New Role for Old Friends: Effects of Helminth Infections on Vaccine Efficacy

by Feifan Zhu, Wenyi Liu, Tong Liu, Linpeng Shi, Wenwen Zheng, Fei Guan and Jiahui Lei

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101163 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2185

Abstract

Vaccines are one of the most successful medical inventions to enable the eradication or control of common and fatal diseases. Environmental exposure of hosts, including helminth infections, plays an important role in immune responses to vaccines. Given that helminth infections are among the most common infectious diseases in the world, evaluating vaccine efficiency in helminth-infected populations may provide critical information for selecting optimal vaccination programs. Here, we reviewed the effects of helminth infections on vaccination and its underlying immunological mechanisms, based on findings from human studies and animal models. Moreover, the potential influence of helminth infections on SARS-CoV-2 vaccine was also discussed. Based on these findings, there is an urgent need for anthelmintic treatments to eliminate helminth suppressive impacts on vaccination effectiveness during implementing mass vaccination in parasite endemic areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Art and Perspectives of Parasites in China)

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