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Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Bacterial Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 24732

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Prof. Dr. Volker Krömker

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Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Production, Nutrition and Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
Interests: animal science; mastitis; staphylococcus aureus; bovine mastitis; antimicrobials
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Prof. Dr. Paolo Moroni

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Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
Interests: molecular diagnostic; management; resistance
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Dear Colleagues,

Advancements in diagnostic capabilities are leading to more accurate identification of ruminant mastitis pathogenic microorganisms. This will change our perception of ruminant mastitis. Habitats, transmission and infection mechanisms, resistance characteristics, risk factors, and effects on the mammary gland and productivity need to be re-examined. Acute phase proteins, haptoglobin and serum amyloid A, are also potential candidates for monitoring mastitis and need to be validated in field conditions. The result will be more successful prevention and control of ruminant mastitis.

Prof. Dr. Volker Krömker
Prof. Dr. Paolo Moroni
Guest Editors

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Keywords

ruminant mastitis
pathogens and the infection mechanisms
risk factors
molecular diagnostics and control strategies
mastitis therapy
monitoring the udder health in dairy cow herds

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Related Special Issue

The Role of Microorganism in Bovine Mastitis in Animals (10 articles)

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Research

15 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathogen Detection via Quantitative PCR in Milk of Healthy Cows Collected Using Different Sampling Protocols

by Silvia Magro, Elena Visentin, Elena Chiarin, Filippo Cendron, Mauro Penasa, Angela Costa, Martino Cassandro and Massimo De Marchi

Pathogens 2023, 12(7), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070935 - 13 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1767

Abstract

In this study we evaluated the prevalence of pathogens detected via quantitative PCR (qPCR) in milk from apparently healthy cows to identify the most common etiological agents present in Italian dairy farms. Milk samples were collected using a sterile protocol at quarter-level (3239 samples, 822 cows) and a conventional protocol at udder level as composite milk from the functional quarters of each cow (5464 samples, 5464 cows). The qPCR commercial kit detected Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma spp., Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Prototheca spp., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Enterococcus spp. and Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis as well as DNA from the penicillin resistance β-lactamase gene from staphylococci. The prevalence of specific DNA was calculated based on its presence or absence in the samples, factoring in both the sampling protocols and herds. Regardless of the sampling protocol used, the most frequently detected pathogens were CNS (26.6% in sterile and 13.9% in conventional protocol) and Streptococcus uberis (9.6% and 16.5%, respectively). These results underscore the necessity for pathogen-specific interventions at the farm level to enhance the udder health of dairy cows via management recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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14 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reservoirs of Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. Associated with Intramammary Infections of Dairy Cows

by Svenja Woudstra, Nicole Wente, Yanchao Zhang, Stefanie Leimbach, Carsten Kirkeby, Maya Katrin Gussmann and Volker Krömker

Pathogens 2023, 12(5), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050699 - 11 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1703

Abstract

To design cost-effective prevention strategies against mastitis in dairy cow farms, knowledge about infection pathways of causative pathogens is necessary. Therefore, we investigated the reservoirs of bacterial strains causing intramammary infections in one dairy cow herd. Quarter foremilk samples (n = 8056) and milking- and housing-related samples (n = 251; from drinking troughs, bedding material, walking areas, cow brushes, fly traps, milking liners, and milker gloves), were collected and examined using culture-based methods. Species were identified with MALDI-TOF MS, and selected Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp. typed with randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR. Staphylococci were isolated from all and streptococci from most investigated locations. However, only for Staphylococcus aureus, matching strain types (n = 2) were isolated from milk and milking-related samples (milking liners and milker gloves). Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus haemolyticus showed a large genetic diversity without any matches of strain types from milk and other samples. Streptococcus uberis was the only Streptococcus spp. isolated from milk and milking- or housing-related samples. However, no matching strains were found. This study underlines the importance of measures preventing the spread of Staphylococcus aureus between quarters during milking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

13 pages, 932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association between Mastitis Occurrence in Dairy Cows and Bedding Characteristics of Compost-Bedded Pack Barns

by Gustavo Freu, Breno Luis Nery Garcia, Tiago Tomazi, Gabriela Siqueira Di Leo, Larissa Schneider Gheller, Valerio Bronzo, Paolo Moroni and Marcos Veiga Dos Santos

Pathogens 2023, 12(4), 583; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040583 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2540

Abstract

Compost-bedded pack barns (CB) are receiving increasing attention as a housing system that can potentially improve the welfare of dairy cows. This study characterized the frequency and profile of pathogens isolated from clinical (CM) and subclinical (SCM) mastitis in dairy cows housed in CB. It evaluated the association between mastitis occurrence and bedding characteristics in CB systems. Over six months, seven dairy herds were visited monthly for milk and bedding sample collections. Milk samples from mastitis cases were submitted to microbiological identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF MS). Bedding samples were submitted to physical-chemical (pH, organic matter, moisture, and carbon to nitrogen ratio) and microbiological counting (total bacterial counts, coliforms, streptococci, and staphylococci) analyses. Regression analysis was used to determine the association between mastitis occurrence and CB characteristics. Our results showed that Escherichia coli and environmental streptococci were the most frequently isolated pathogens from CM cases, while Staphylococcus chromogenes and contagious pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae) were the most commonly isolated from SCM cases. Bedding moisture content was positively associated with the incidence of CM. The bedding carbon to nitrogen ratio was negatively associated with the incidence of SCM, and the bedding total bacteria counts tended to be associated with the incidence of SCM. Bedding counts of coliforms positively associated with the prevalence of SCM. Our results can support decision-makers in the dairy industry seeking strategies for bedding management and mastitis control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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14 pages, 1284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intermediate Cluster Disinfection: Which Disinfection Solution Is Most Effective on Milking Liners? A Comparison of Microorganism Reduction on Liner Inner Surfaces Using Quantitative Swab Sampling Technique

by Sabrina Scheib, Stefanie Leimbach, Georg Avramidis, Martin Bellmann, Julia Nitz, Christian Ochs, Anne Tellen, Nicole Wente, Yanchao Zhang, Wolfgang Viöl and Volker Krömker

Pathogens 2023, 12(4), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040560 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1757

Abstract

During machine milking, pathogenic microorganisms can be transmitted from cow to cow through liners. Therefore, in Germany, a spray method for the intermediate disinfection of the milking cluster is often used for prevention. This method of cluster disinfection is easy to perform, requires little time and no extra materials, and the disinfection solution is safe from outside contamination in the spray bottle. Since no data on a systematic efficacy trial are available, the aim of this study was to determine the microbial reduction effect of intermediate disinfection. Therefore, laboratory and field trials were conducted. In both trials, two sprays of 0.85 mL per burst of different disinfectant solutions were sprayed into the contaminated liners. For sampling, a quantitative swabbing method using a modified wet–dry swab (WDS) technique based on DIN 10113-1: 1997-07 was applied. Thus, the effectiveness of disinfectants based on Peracetic Acid, Hydrogen Peroxide and Plasma-Activated Buffered Solution (PABS) was compared. In the laboratory trial, the inner surfaces of liners were contaminated with pure cultures of Escherichia (E.) coli, Staphylococcus (S.) aureus, Streptococcus (Sc.) uberis and Sc. agalactiae. The disinfection of the contaminated liners with the disinfectants resulted in a significant reduction in bacteria with values averaging 1 log for E. coli, 0.7 log for S. aureus, 0.7 log for Sc. uberis and 0.8 log for Sc. agalactiae. The highest reduction was obtained for contamination with E. coli (1.3 log) and Sc. uberis (0.8 log) when PABS was applied and for contamination with S. aureus (1.1 log) and Sc. agalactiae (1 log) when Peracetic Acid Solution (PAS) was used. Treatment with sterile water only led to an average reduction of 0.4 log. In the field trial, after the milking of 575 cows, the liners were disinfected and the total microorganism count from the liner surface was performed. The reduction was measured against an untreated liner within the cluster. Although a reduction in microorganisms was achieved in the field trial, it was not significant. When using PAS, a log reduction of 0.3 was achieved; when using PABS, a log reduction of 0.2 was obtained. The difference between the two disinfection methods was also not significant. Treatment with sterile water only led to a reduction of 0.1 log. The results show that spray disinfection under these circumstances does result in a reduction in the bacteria on the milking liner surface, but for effective disinfection a higher reduction would be preferred. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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8 pages, 261 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Colonization of Extramammary Sites with Mastitis-Associated S. aureus Strains in Dairy Goats

by Catharina Elizabeth Exel, Yvette de Geus, Mirlin Spaninks, Gerrit Koop and Lindert Benedictus

Pathogens 2023, 12(4), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040515 - 26 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2427

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a major mastitis pathogen in dairy goats, is classified as a contagious pathogen. Although previous research has shown that extramammary body sites can be colonized with S. aureus, it is unknown whether these sites are reservoirs for intramammary infections. The aim of this research was to determine whether extramammary sites can be colonized with mastitis-associated S. aureus strains in dairy goats. Milk samples were collected from 207 primiparous goats and from 120 of these goats, extramammary site samples (hock, groin, nares, vulva and udder) were collected from a large commercial dairy goat herd in the Netherlands during four sampling visits. Extramammary site swabs and milk samples were (selectively) cultured and S. aureus isolates were spa genotyped. The prevalence of colonization of the extramammary sites at goat level was 51.7% and the prevalence of S. aureus intramammary infections was 7.2%. The nares were colonized most frequently (45%), while the groin area was colonized the least (2.5%). Six spa genotypes were identified in this herd and there was no significant difference in the distribution of spa genotypes between the milk or the extramammary sites (p = 0.141). Both in the extramammary sites and in the milk, spa genotypes t544 (82.3% and 53.3%) and t1236 (22.6% and 33.3%) were the dominant genotypes. These results show that in goats, extramammary sites, particularly the nares, are frequently colonized with mastitis-associated S. aureus strains. Extramammary sites may, thus, be a source of S. aureus intramammary infections that are not targeted by the intervention measures aimed at preventing transmission from infected udder glands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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10 pages, 549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Biofilm Production and High Somatic Cell Count in Streptococcus agalactiae Isolated from Milk of Cows with Subclinical Mastitis

by Erika Carolina Romão Bonsaglia, Rodolfo S. Rossi, Giulia Latosinski, Bruna Fernanda Rossi, Fernanda Cristina Campos, Ary Fernandes Junior, José Carlos F. Pantoja and Vera Lucia Mores Rall

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020311 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1876

Abstract

Streptococcus agalactiae (S. agalactiae) is one of the main agents that causes mastitis in dairy cows, mainly inducing the subclinical form, which is characterized by a high somatic cell count (SCC). The aim of this study was to correlate the increase in SCC caused by S. agalactiae in cows with subclinical mastitis to the presence of genes related to adhesion and invasion in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMEC) and biofilm formation. Considering the 145 isolates tested, 57.2% presented the capsular type Ia and 42.8% presented type III. We identified the virulence genes among the isolates and determined nine genetic profiles. The most common profile was identified in 69 isolates (47.5%): Ia, fbsA⁺, fbsB^-, pI1^-, pI2a^-, pI2b⁺, and hylb⁺. All isolates produced biofilm, with 58.6% classified as strong producers, 29% as moderate producers and 12.4% as weak producers. No statistical correlation was found between the presence of virulence genes and increased SCC or biofilm production. However, biological evidence was observed between increased SCC and biofilm production. One isolate from each profile was randomly subjected to adhesion and invasion assays, and all of them adhered to BEMC, but none were able to invade. Our results showed that different genetic profiles do not provide advantages for bacteria to invade BMEC in vitro. In addition, biofilm production appears to be related to high SCC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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12 pages, 1939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intramammary Ethno-Veterinary Formulation in Bovine Mastitis Treatment for Optimization of Antibiotic Use

by Dragana Tomanić, Nebojša Kladar, Miodrag Radinović, Ivan Stančić, Mihajlo Erdeljan, Jovan Stanojević, Ivan Galić, Katarina Bijelić and Zorana Kovačević

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020259 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3283

Abstract

Increasing pressure on animal and human health as well as food security, due to antimicrobial resistance, is leading to increased demand for natural-product-derived antibiotics worldwide. Considering the importance of bovine mastitis as well as the huge challenge posed by mastitis therapy in cattle production, the main goal of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of the essential oil-based pharmaceutical (Phyto-Bomat), as an alternative to the existing treatment with antibiotics. The therapeutic response of the cows was monitored using clinical and bacteriological cure of the proposed formulation. Among 550 dairy cows, 75 were diagnosed with a clinical or subclinical form of mastitis and divided into three experimental groups: treated with antibiotic; Phyto-Bomat; antibiotic and Phyto-Bomat. Indicators of bacteriological cure were somatic cell count (SCC), total bacterial count, and causative agent isolation, while the clinical cure was accessed by observing physical udder conditions. All mentioned indicators were assessed before and after the treatment (1st and 7th day post-treatment), with all of the three therapeutic protocols. After Phyto-Bomat treatment, no visible signs of irritation were noticed, while no significant effect in reducing SCC and total bacterial count was observed. Phyto-Bomat has shown promising results in the treatment of mastitis, without the risk of udder irritation, alone or in combination with antibiotics as part of a mastitis control program during lactation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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9 pages, 248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reservoirs of Corynebacterium spp. in the Environment of Dairy Cows

by Svenja Woudstra, Anneke Lücken, Nicole Wente, Yanchao Zhang, Stefanie Leimbach, Maya Katrin Gussmann, Carsten Kirkeby and Volker Krömker

Pathogens 2023, 12(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12010139 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

Although Corynebacterium spp. can be regularly associated with subclinical and clinical mastitis cases in dairy cows, knowledge on their reservoirs in dairy farms is sparse. Therefore, samples were collected at 10 visits with 14 day intervals from bedding material (n = 50), drinking troughs (n = 20), different walking areas (n = 60), cow brushes (n = 8), fly traps (n = 4), the passage to pasture (n = 9) as well as milking liners (n = 80) and milker gloves (n = 20) in one dairy cow farm. Additionally, quarter foremilk samples from all lactating cows (approximately 200) were collected at each visit. All samples underwent microbiological examination and cultured isolates were identified using MALDI-TOF MS. Most Corynebacterium spp. that were cultivated from milk were also isolated from the housing environment and milking-related niches (C. amycolatum, C. confusum, C. stationis, C. variabile, C. xerosis) or from milking-related niches only (C. frankenforstense, C. pilosum, C. suicordis). C. bovis was not cultivated from any environmental niche, while being the dominant species in milk samples. This study demonstrates that many Corynebacterium spp. present in milk samples can also be isolated from the cows’ environment. For C. bovis, the most relevant Corynebacterium species with regard to intramammary infections, it indicates that environmental reservoirs are of little relevance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

12 pages, 658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Mammary Pathogenic E. coli (MPEC) Isolates from Bovine Clinical Mastitis

by Fernanda C. Campos, Ivana G. Castilho, Bruna F. Rossi, Érika C. R. Bonsaglia, Stéfani T. A. Dantas, Regiane C. B. Dias, Ary Fernandes Júnior, Rodrigo T. Hernandes, Carlos H. Camargo, Márcio G. Ribeiro, José C. F. Pantoja, Hélio Langoni and Vera L. M. Rall

Pathogens 2022, 11(12), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11121435 - 28 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2405

Abstract

Mammary pathogenic E. coli (MPEC) is one of the main pathogens of environmental origin responsible for causing clinical mastitis worldwide. Even though E. coli are strongly associated with transient or persistent mastitis and the economic impacts of this disease, the virulence factors involved in the pathogenesis of MPEC remain unknown. Our aim was to characterize 110 MPEC isolates obtained from the milk of cows with clinical mastitis, regarding the virulence factor-encoding genes present, adherence patterns on HeLa cells, and antimicrobial resistance profile. The MPEC isolates were classified mainly in phylogroups A (50.9%) and B1 (38.2%). None of the isolates harbored genes used for diarrheagenic E. coli classification, but 26 (23.6%) and 4 (3.6%) isolates produced the aggregative or diffuse adherence pattern, respectively. Among the 22 genes investigated, encoding virulence factors associated with extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli pathogenesis, fimH (93.6%) was the most frequent, followed by traT (77.3%) and ompT (68.2%). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis revealed six pulse-types with isolates obtained over time, thus indicating persistent intramammary infections. The genes encoding beta-lactamases detected were as follows: bla_TEM (35/31.8%); bla_CTX-M-2/bla_CTX-M-8 (2/1.8%); bla_CTX-M-15 and bla_CMY-2 (1/0.9%); five isolates were classified as extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers. As far as we know, papA, shf, ireA, sat and bla_CTX-M-8 were detected for the first time in MPEC. In summary, the genetic profile of the MPEC studied was highly heterogeneous, making it impossible to establish a common genetic profile useful for molecular MPEC classification. Moreover, the detection of ESBL-producing isolates is a serious public health concern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Ruminant Mastitis)

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14 pages, 286 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Factors Associated with the Severity of Clinical Mastitis

by Frederik Fredebeul-Krein, Anne Schmenger, Nicole Wente, Yanchao Zhang and Volker Krömker

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101089 - 24 Sep 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3539

Abstract

Severe mastitis can lead to considerable disturbances in the cows’ general condition and even to septicemia and death. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to identify factors associated with the severity of the clinical expression of mastitis. Streptococcus (Str.) uberis (29.9%) was the most frequently isolated pathogen, followed by coliform bacteria (22.3%). The majority of all mastitis cases (n = 854) in this study were either mild or moderate, but 21.1% were severe. It can be deduced that the combination of coliform pathogens and increasing pathogen shedding of these showed associations with severe mastitis. Furthermore, animal-related factors associated with severe disease progression were stages of lactation, and previous diseases in the period prior to the mastitis episode. Cows in early lactation had more severe mastitis. Ketosis and uterine diseases in temporal relation to the mastitis were associated with more severe mastitis in the diseased cows. Hypocalcemia was significantly associated with milder mastitis. As another factor, treatment with corticosteroids within two weeks before mastitis was associated with higher severity of mastitis. Knowledge of these risk factors may provide the basis for randomized controlled trials of the exact influence of these on the severity of mastitis. Full article

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