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Pathogens
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Water-Borne Pathogens
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Water-Borne Pathogens

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2023) | Viewed by 17067

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. María José Figueras

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Unit of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Pere Virgili Health Research Institute, University Rovira i Virgili, 43003 Tarragona, Spain
Interests: taxonomy; bacteria; virulence
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Ana Fernández-Bravo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Unit of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Pere Virgili Health Research Institute, University Rovira i Virgili, 43003 Tarragona, Spain
Interests: bacteria; virulence; immune system
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water-borne pathogens and associated diseases are an important public health problem worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), water-borne diseases cause about 3.4 million human deaths annually. These diseases are caused by a wide spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, and this is associated with a lack of clean water, hygiene, and sanitation. There are several pathways of pathogen entry inside the human body and the most commonly reported symptom of these water-borne diseases is diarrhea, frequently resulting in dehydration. However, other types of infections can involve the skin and the respiratory system. Water-borne disease outbreaks can affect large numbers of the population and are usually associated with food exposed to contaminated water, drinking water, and recreational water. However, the epidemiology of these outbreaks varies according to different regions of the world. To increase the knowledge of the factors related to water-borne infections such as novel detection methods, risk assessment and management, interactions of pathogens in microbial communities, effects of antimicrobials, virulence factors, and immune system evasion mechanisms, is the best approach to develop effective strategies for the control of these infections.

This Special Issue will focus on the study of the epidemiology and pathogenic characterization of water-borne pathogens.

Prof. Dr. María José Figueras
Dr. Ana Fernández-Bravo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • water-borne pathogens
  • epidemiology
  • virulence
  • immune response

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

21 pages, 4349 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Occurrence of Host-Specific Faecal Indicator Markers in Water Systems as a Function of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices: A Case Study in Rural Communities of Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa
by Dikeledi Prudence Mothiba, Colette Mmapenya Khabo-Mmekoa, Renay Ngobeni-Nyambi and Maggy Ndombo Benteke Momba
Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010016 - 23 Dec 2023
Viewed by 863
Abstract
In settings where humans and animals closely coexist, the introduction of faecal material into unprotected water sources significantly increases the risk of contracting diarrhoeal and zoonotic waterborne diseases. The data were gathered from a survey conducted through interviews at randomly sampled villages; additionally, [...] Read more.
In settings where humans and animals closely coexist, the introduction of faecal material into unprotected water sources significantly increases the risk of contracting diarrhoeal and zoonotic waterborne diseases. The data were gathered from a survey conducted through interviews at randomly sampled villages; additionally, water samples were collected in randomly selected households and their associated feeder catchments. Molecular techniques were used, specifically qPCR, to run host-specific Bacteroides microbial source tracking (MST) assays for human, cattle, pig, chicken and dog faecal contamination. Unexpectedly, the qPCR assays revealed dogs to be the most prevalent (40.65%) depositor of faecal matter in unprotected surface water, followed by humans (40.63%); this finding was contradictory to survey findings indicating cattle as the leading source. At the household level, dogs (16.67%) and chickens (15.28%) played prominent roles, as was expected. Reflecting on some of the basic daily practices in households, nearly 89.00% of the population was found to store water due to erratic supply, in contrast to 93.23% using an improved water source. Additionally, a significant association was found between water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) variables and the occurrence of MST markers after performing a bivariate linear regression. However, the inconsistency between the MST results and household surveys suggests pervasive sanitation issues, even in households without domesticated animals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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16 pages, 2793 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of a Tetracycline-Resistant E. coli Enumeration Method for Correctly Classifying E. coli in Environmental Waters in Kentucky, USA
by Callie Boggs, Kidus Shiferawe, Eckhardt Karsten, Jayden Hamlet, S. Travis Altheide and Jason W. Marion
Pathogens 2023, 12(9), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12091090 - 28 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1483
Abstract
The global concern over antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its impact on human health is evident, with approximately 4.95 million annual deaths attributed to antibiotic resistance. Regions with inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene face challenges in responding to AMR threats. Enteric bacteria, particularly E. [...] Read more.
The global concern over antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its impact on human health is evident, with approximately 4.95 million annual deaths attributed to antibiotic resistance. Regions with inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene face challenges in responding to AMR threats. Enteric bacteria, particularly E. coli, are common agents linked to AMR-related deaths (23% of cases). Culture-based methods for detecting tetracycline-resistant E. coli may be of practical value for AMR monitoring in limited resource environments. This study evaluated the ColiGlow™ method with tetracycline for classifying tetracycline-resistant E. coli. A total of 61 surface water samples from Kentucky, USA (2020–2022), provided 61 presumed E. coli isolates, of which 28 isolates were obtained from tetracycline-treated media. Species identification and tetracycline resistance evaluation were performed. It was found that 82% of isolates were E. coli, and 18% were other species; 97% were identified as E. coli when using the API20E identification system. The MicroScan system yielded Enterobacter cloacae false positives in 20% of isolates. Adding tetracycline to ColiGlow increased the odds of isolating tetracycline-resistant E. coli 18-fold. Tetracycline-treated samples yielded 100% tetracycline-resistant E. coli when the total E. coli densities were within the enumeration range of the method. ColiGlow with tetracycline shows promise for monitoring tetracycline-resistant E. coli in natural waters and potentially aiding AMR surveillance in resource-limited settings among other environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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21 pages, 1728 KiB  
Article
The Fascinating Cross-Paths of Pathogenic Bacteria, Human and Animal Faecal Sources in Water-Stressed Communities of Vhembe District, South Africa
by Mulalo Mudau, Renay Ngobeni-Nyambi and Maggy Ndombo Benteke Momba
Pathogens 2023, 12(9), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12091085 - 26 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 840
Abstract
Access to clean and safe drinking water still remains a major challenge in the developing world, causing public health risks in terms of waterborne infections, especially in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to track and detect enteric pathogens (Salmonella [...] Read more.
Access to clean and safe drinking water still remains a major challenge in the developing world, causing public health risks in terms of waterborne infections, especially in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to track and detect enteric pathogens (Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium str. LT2, Shigella flexneri, and Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni) in rural water sources. It also sought to establish a correlation between these pathogens and the sources of faecal pollution. Multiplex qPCR and specific primers and probes were used for detection and tracking. The study successfully correlated the occurrence of target pathogens with sources of human and animal faecal contamination using host-specific genetic markers (BacHum and HF183 for humans, BacCow for cows, Pig-2-Bac for pigs, Cytb for chickens, and BacCan for dogs). The study revealed that enteric pathogens were found in 47.69% and 32.80% of samples during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. These pathogens were associated with human or animal faecal contamination. Correlations between pathogens and contamination sources were significant (p ≤ 0.05), with varying strengths during the wet and dry seasons. The findings emphasize the importance of identifying faecal contamination sources to protect rural communities from waterborne infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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16 pages, 4685 KiB  
Article
The Infection Dynamics of Experimental Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium covae Coinfection in Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
by Allison L. Wise, Benjamin R. LaFrentz, Anita M. Kelly, Mark R. Liles, Matt J. Griffin, Benjamin H. Beck and Timothy J. Bruce
Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030462 - 15 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1867
Abstract
Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium covae are pervasive bacterial pathogens associated with significant losses in catfish aquaculture. Bacterial coinfections have the potential to increase outbreak severity and can worsen on-farm mortality. A preliminary assessment of in vivo bacterial coinfection with E. ictaluri (S97-773) and [...] Read more.
Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium covae are pervasive bacterial pathogens associated with significant losses in catfish aquaculture. Bacterial coinfections have the potential to increase outbreak severity and can worsen on-farm mortality. A preliminary assessment of in vivo bacterial coinfection with E. ictaluri (S97-773) and F. covae (ALG-00-530) was conducted using juvenile channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Catfish were divided into five treatment groups: (1) mock control; (2) E. ictaluri full dose (immersion; 5.4 × 105 CFU mL−1); (3) F. covae full dose (immersion; 3.6 × 106 CFU mL−1); (4) E. ictaluri half dose (immersion; 2.7 × 105 CFU mL−1) followed by half dose F. covae (immersion; 1.8 × 106 CFU mL−1); and (5) F. covae half dose followed by half dose E. ictaluri. In the coinfection challenges, the second inoculum was delivered 48 h after the initial exposure. At 21 days post-challenge (DPC), the single dose E. ictaluri infection yielded a cumulative percent mortality (CPM) of 90.0 ± 4.1%, compared with 13.3 ± 5.9% in the F. covae group. Mortality patterns in coinfection challenges mimicked the single dose E. ictaluri challenge, with CPM of 93.3 ± 5.4% for fish initially challenged with E. ictaluri followed by F. covae, and 93.3 ± 2.7% for fish exposed to F. covae and subsequently challenged with E. ictaluri. Despite similarities in the final CPM within the coinfection groups, the onset of peak mortality was delayed in fish exposed to F. covae first but was congruent with mortality trends in the E. ictaluri challenge. Catfish exposed to E. ictaluri in both the single and coinfected treatments displayed increased serum lysozyme activity at 4-DPC (p < 0.001). Three pro-inflammatory cytokines (il8, tnfα, il1β) were evaluated for gene expression, revealing an increase in expression at 7-DPC in all E. ictaluri exposed treatments (p < 0.05). These data enhance our understanding of the dynamics of E. ictaluri and F. covae coinfections in US farm-raised catfish. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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13 pages, 1124 KiB  
Article
Drosophila melanogaster Systemic Infection Model to Study Altered Virulence during Polymicrobial Infection by Aeromonas
by Alexandre Robert, Emilie Talagrand-Reboul, Maria-Jose Figueras, Raymond Ruimy, Laurent Boyer and Brigitte Lamy
Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030405 - 2 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1370
Abstract
Background: Polymicrobial infections are complex infections associated with worse outcomes compared to monomicrobial infections. We need simple, fast, and cost-effective animal models to assess their still poorly known pathogenesis. Methods: We developed a Drosophila melanogaster polymicrobial infection model for opportunistic pathogens and assessed [...] Read more.
Background: Polymicrobial infections are complex infections associated with worse outcomes compared to monomicrobial infections. We need simple, fast, and cost-effective animal models to assess their still poorly known pathogenesis. Methods: We developed a Drosophila melanogaster polymicrobial infection model for opportunistic pathogens and assessed its capacity to discriminate the effects of bacterial mixtures taken from cases of human polymicrobial infections by Aeromonas strains. A systemic infection was obtained by needle pricking the dorsal thorax of the flies, and the fly survival was monitored over time. Different lineages of the flies were infected by a single strain or paired strains (strain ratio 1:1). Results: Individual strains killed more than 80% of the flies in 20 h. The course of infection could be altered with a microbial mix. The model could distinguish between the diverse effects (synergistic, antagonistic, and no difference) that resulted in a milder, more severe, or similar infection, depending on the paired strain considered. We then investigated the determinants of the effects. The effects were maintained in deficient fly lineages for the main signaling pathways (Toll deficient and IMD deficient), which suggests an active microbe/microbe/host interaction. Conclusion: These results indicate that the D. melanogaster systemic infection model is consistent with the study of polymicrobial infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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16 pages, 1690 KiB  
Article
Potential Pathogenicity of Aeromonas spp. Recovered in River Water, Soil, and Vegetation from a Natural Recreational Area
by Roberto M. Guerra, Francisco Damián Maleno, Maria José Figueras, Isabel Pujol-Bajador and Ana Fernández-Bravo
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1382; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111382 - 19 Nov 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
The genus Aeromonas is widely distributed in aquatic environments and is recognized as a potential human pathogen. Some Aeromonas species are able to cause a wide spectrum of diseases, mainly gastroenteritis, skin and soft-tissue infections, bacteremia, and sepsis. Currently, untreated river water is [...] Read more.
The genus Aeromonas is widely distributed in aquatic environments and is recognized as a potential human pathogen. Some Aeromonas species are able to cause a wide spectrum of diseases, mainly gastroenteritis, skin and soft-tissue infections, bacteremia, and sepsis. Currently, untreated river water is used for irrigation and recreational purposes. In this study, the Aeromonas spp. present in a river recreational environment was investigated by quantifying its presence in water, soil, and vegetation using three techniques: qPCR, plate counting in selective ADA medium, and Most Probable Number, in parallel. The presence of clones in the three types of samples was elucidated through genotyping with the ERIC-PCR technique, whereas the identification of the isolated Aeromonas was carried out by sequencing the rpoD gene. Finally, the pathogenic potential of some of the strains was explored by studying the presence and expression of virulence genes characteristic of the genus, their antimicrobial susceptibility profile, as well as the quantification of their cell damage and intracellular survival in an in vitro macrophages infection model. The results showed the presence of Aeromonas in all samples with the three quantification methods, with Aeromonas popoffii being the most prevalent species. The presence of strains with the same genotype (ERIC-PCR) was also confirmed in different samples. Some of the strains showed a high level of cell damage and intracellular bacterial survival, as well as the presence of various virulence factors. Furthermore, these strains showed resistance to some of the antibiotics tested and used therapeutically in both humans and animals. These results indicate that the presence of Aeromonas in this environment may represent a biosanitary risk that could be a public health problem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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15 pages, 945 KiB  
Article
A Methodological Approach to Water Concentration to Investigate the Presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Surface Freshwaters
by Marina Tesauro, Mara Terraneo, Michela Consonni, Clara Fappani, Daniela Colzani, Caterina Stevanin, Antonella Amendola, Daniele Masseroni and Elisabetta Tanzi
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080845 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1448
Abstract
During the COVID-19 public health emergency, an increasing number of studies reported the occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewaters worldwide, but little is known about the presence of the virus in surface freshwaters. The aim of the current study was to develop and validate [...] Read more.
During the COVID-19 public health emergency, an increasing number of studies reported the occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewaters worldwide, but little is known about the presence of the virus in surface freshwaters. The aim of the current study was to develop and validate an appropriate and scalable methodological approach for the concentration and detection of SARS-CoV-2 from surface freshwater samples, collected within the Milan rural network subjected to flood spillways activity. Overall, both surface water and distilled water samples spiked with inactivated SARS-CoV-2 were used to validate the concentration method for pathogens determination. Two pre-filtration systems, filter paper and Sartolab® P20 (Sartorius, Germany) and two concentration methods, two-phase (PEG-dextran method) separation and tangential flow ultrafiltration (UF), were compared. The effects of pre-filtration and concentration on viral nucleic acid recovery were assessed through real time RT-PCR targeting SARS-CoV-2 and the internal viral control PMMoV (Pepper Mild Mottle Virus). Our results showed that UF is more sensitive than the PEG-dextran method in viral acid nucleic recovery from surface water samples. Better results were obtained pre-filtering samples with Sartolab® P20 and extracting the nucleic acids with undiluted silica, rather than diluted as required by the standard protocol. The proposed method will be used for the monitoring of surface waters in the Milan area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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17 pages, 1549 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Molecular Characterisation of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli, from Cattle Farm to Aquatic Environments
by Khuliso Ramaite, Mutshiene Deogratias Ekwanzala and Maggy Ndombo Benteke Momba
Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060674 - 10 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2174
Abstract
Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria are a major problem for public health worldwide because of limited treatment options. Currently, only limited information is available on ESBL-producing Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in cattle farms and the surrounding aquatic environment. This study sought to track [...] Read more.
Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria are a major problem for public health worldwide because of limited treatment options. Currently, only limited information is available on ESBL-producing Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in cattle farms and the surrounding aquatic environment. This study sought to track and characterise ESBL-producing STEC disseminating from a cattle farm into the water environment. Animal husbandry soil (HS), animal manure (AM), animal drinking water (ADW), and nearby river water (NRW) samples were collected from the cattle farm. Presumptive ESBL-producing STEC were isolated and identified using chromogenic media and mass spectrophotometry methods (MALDI-TOF-MS), respectively. The isolates were subjected to molecular analysis, and all confirmed ESBL-producing STEC isolates were serotyped for their O serogroups and assessed for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and for the presence of selected virulence factors (VFs). A phylogenetic tree based on the multilocus sequences was constructed to determine the relatedness among isolates of ESBL-producing STEC. The highest prevalence of ESBL-producing STEC of 83.33% was observed in HS, followed by ADW with 75%, NRW with 68.75%, and the lowest was observed in AM with 64.58%. Out of 40 randomly selected isolates, 88% (n = 35) belonged to the serogroup O45 and 13% (n = 5) to the serogroup O145. The multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis revealed four different sequence types (STs), namely ST10, ST23, ST165, and ST117, and the predominant ST was found to be ST10. All 40 isolates carried sul1 (100%), while blaOXA, blaCTX-M, sul2, blaTEM, and qnrS genes were found in 98%, 93%, 90%, 83%, and 23% of the 40 isolates, respectively. For VFs, only stx2 was detected in ESBL-producing STEC isolates. The results of the present study indicated that a cattle environment is a potential reservoir of ESBL-producing STEC, which may disseminate into the aquatic environment through agricultural runoff, thus polluting water sources. Therefore, continual surveillance of ESBL-producing STEC non-O157 would be beneficial for controlling and preventing STEC-related illnesses originating from livestock environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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15 pages, 1033 KiB  
Article
Cooccurrence of Five Pathogenic Legionella spp. and Two Free-Living Amoebae Species in a Complete Drinking Water System and Cooling Towers
by Alshae Logan-Jackson and Joan B. Rose
Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1407; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111407 - 30 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3445
Abstract
Pathogenic Legionella species grow optimally inside free-living amoebae to concentrations that increase risks to those who are exposed. The aim of this study was to screen a complete drinking water system and cooling towers for the occurrence of Acanthamoeba spp. and Naegleria fowleri [...] Read more.
Pathogenic Legionella species grow optimally inside free-living amoebae to concentrations that increase risks to those who are exposed. The aim of this study was to screen a complete drinking water system and cooling towers for the occurrence of Acanthamoeba spp. and Naegleria fowleri and their cooccurrence with Legionella pneumophila, Legionella anisa, Legionella micdadei, Legionella bozemanii, and Legionella longbeachae. A total of 42 large-volume water samples, including 12 from the reservoir (water source), 24 from two buildings (influents to the buildings and exposure sites (taps)), and six cooling towers were collected and analyzed using droplet digital PCR (ddPCR). N. fowleri cooccurred with L. micdadei in 76 (32/42) of the water samples. In the building water system, the concentrations of N. fowleri and L. micdadei ranged from 1.5 to 1.6 Log10 gene copies (GC)/100 mL, but the concentrations of species increased in the cooling towers. The data obtained in this study illustrate the ecology of pathogenic Legionella species in taps and cooling towers. Investigating Legionella’s ecology in drinking and industrial waters will hopefully lead to better control of these pathogenic species in drinking water supply systems and cooling towers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Borne Pathogens)
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