Plants

Editorial

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6 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research

by Giovanna Frugis

Plants 2019, 8(9), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8090299 - 24 Aug 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4498

Abstract

The way plants grow and develop organs significantly impacts the overall performance and yield of crop plants. The basic knowledge now available in plant development has the potential to help breeders in generating plants with defined architectural features to improve productivity. Plant translational [...] Read more.

The way plants grow and develop organs significantly impacts the overall performance and yield of crop plants. The basic knowledge now available in plant development has the potential to help breeders in generating plants with defined architectural features to improve productivity. Plant translational research effort has steadily increased over the last decade, due to the huge increase in the availability of crop genomic resources and Arabidopsis-based sequence annotation systems. However, a consistent gap between fundamental and applied science has yet to be filled. One critical point is often the unreadiness of developmental biologists on one side, to foresee agricultural applications for their discoveries, and of the breeders on the other, to exploit gene function studies to apply candidate gene approaches when advantageous. In this Special Issue, developmental biologists and breeders make a special effort to reconcile research on basic principles of plant development and organogenesis with its applications to crop production and genetic improvement. Fundamental and applied science contributions interwine and chase each other, giving the reader different but complementary perpectives from only apparently distant corners of the same world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

Research

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9 pages, 12531 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cytokinin-Dependent Control of GH3 Group II Family Genes in the Arabidopsis Root

by Emanuela Pierdonati, Simon Josef Unterholzner, Elena Salvi, Noemi Svolacchia, Gaia Bertolotti, Raffaele Dello Ioio, Sabrina Sabatini and Riccardo Di Mambro

Plants 2019, 8(4), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8040094 - 8 Apr 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5520

Abstract

The Arabidopsis root is a dynamic system where the interaction between different plant hormones controls root meristem activity and, thus, organ growth. In the root, a characteristic graded distribution of the hormone auxin provides positional information, coordinating the proliferating and differentiating cell status. [...] Read more.

The Arabidopsis root is a dynamic system where the interaction between different plant hormones controls root meristem activity and, thus, organ growth. In the root, a characteristic graded distribution of the hormone auxin provides positional information, coordinating the proliferating and differentiating cell status. The hormone cytokinin shapes this gradient by positioning an auxin minimum in the last meristematic cells. This auxin minimum triggers a cell developmental switch necessary to start the differentiation program, thus, regulating the root meristem size. To position the auxin minimum, cytokinin promotes the expression of the IAA-amido synthase group II gene GH3.17, which conjugates auxin with amino acids, in the most external layer of the root, the lateral root cap tissue. Since additional GH3 genes are expressed in the root, we questioned whether cytokinin to position the auxin minimum also operates via different GH3 genes. Here, we show that cytokinin regulates meristem size by activating the expression of GH3.5 and GH3.6 genes, in addition to GH3.17. Thus, cytokinin activity provides a robust control of auxin activity in the entire organ necessary to regulate root growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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10 pages, 2822 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Stress-Triggered Long-Distance Communication Leads to Phenotypic Plasticity: The Case of the Early Root Protoxylem Maturation Induced by Leaf Wounding in Arabidopsis

by Ilaria Fraudentali, Renato Alberto Rodrigues-Pousada, Alessandro Volpini, Paraskevi Tavladoraki, Riccardo Angelini and Alessandra Cona

Plants 2018, 7(4), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040107 - 4 Dec 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3959

Abstract

Root architecture and xylem phenotypic plasticity influence crop productivity by affecting water and nutrient uptake, especially under those environmental stress, which limit water supply or imply excessive water losses. Xylem maturation depends on coordinated events of cell wall lignification and developmental programmed cell [...] Read more.

Root architecture and xylem phenotypic plasticity influence crop productivity by affecting water and nutrient uptake, especially under those environmental stress, which limit water supply or imply excessive water losses. Xylem maturation depends on coordinated events of cell wall lignification and developmental programmed cell death (PCD), which could both be triggered by developmental- and/or stress-driven hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production. Here, the effect of wounding of the cotyledonary leaf on root protoxylem maturation was explored in Arabidopsis thaliana by analysis under Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope (LSCM). Leaf wounding induced early root protoxylem maturation within 3 days from the injury, as after this time protoxylem position was found closer to the tip. The effect of leaf wounding on protoxylem maturation was independent from root growth or meristem size, that did not change after wounding. A strong H₂O₂ accumulation was detected in root protoxylem 6 h after leaf wounding. Furthermore, the H₂O₂ trap N,N¹-dimethylthiourea (DMTU) reversed wound-induced early protoxylem maturation, confirming the need for H₂O₂ production in this signaling pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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9 pages, 2258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inheritance and Genetic Mapping of the Reduced Height (Rht18) Gene in Wheat

by Nathan P. Grant, Amita Mohan, Devinder Sandhu and Kulvinder S. Gill

Plants 2018, 7(3), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7030058 - 15 Jul 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6076

Abstract

Short-statured plants revolutionized agriculture during the 1960s due to their ability to resist lodging, increased their response to fertilizers, and improved partitioning of assimilates which led to yield gains. Of more than 21 reduced-height (Rht) genes reported in wheat, only three— [...] Read more.

Short-statured plants revolutionized agriculture during the 1960s due to their ability to resist lodging, increased their response to fertilizers, and improved partitioning of assimilates which led to yield gains. Of more than 21 reduced-height (Rht) genes reported in wheat, only three—Rht-B1b, Rht-D1b, and Rht8—were extensively used in wheat breeding programs. The remaining reduced height mutants have not been utilized in breeding programs due to the lack of characterization. In the present study, we determined the inheritance of Rht18 and developed a genetic linkage map of the region containing Rht18. The height distribution of the F₂ population was skewed towards the mutant parent, indicating that the dwarf allele (Rht18) is semi-dominant over the tall allele (rht18). Rht18 was mapped on chromosome 6A between markers barc146 and cfd190 with a genetic distance of 26.2 and 17.3 cM, respectively. In addition to plant height, agronomically important traits, like awns and tiller numbers, were also studied in the bi-parental population. Although the average tiller number was very similar in both parents, the F₂ population displayed a normal distribution for tiller number with the majority of plants having phenotype similar to the parents. Transgressive segregation was observed for plant height and tiller number in F₂ population. This study enabled us to select a semi-dwarf line with superior agronomic characteristics that could be utilized in a breeding program. The identification of SSRs associated with Rht18 may improve breeders’ effectiveness in selecting desired semi-dwarf lines for developing new wheat cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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8 pages, 432 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Two Rye Genes Responsible for Abnormal Development of Wheat–Rye Hybrids Are Linked in the Vicinity of an Evolutionary Translocation on Chromosome 6R

by Natalia V. Tsvetkova, Natalia D. Tikhenko, Bernd Hackauf and Anatoly V. Voylokov

Plants 2018, 7(3), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7030055 - 10 Jul 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4052

Abstract

The post-zygotic reproductive isolation (RI) in plants is frequently based on the negative interaction of the parental genes involved in plant development. Of special interest is the study of such types of interactions in crop plants, because of the importance of distant hybridization [...] Read more.

The post-zygotic reproductive isolation (RI) in plants is frequently based on the negative interaction of the parental genes involved in plant development. Of special interest is the study of such types of interactions in crop plants, because of the importance of distant hybridization in plant breeding. This study is devoted to map rye genes that are incompatible with wheat, determining the development of the shoot apical meristem in wheat–rye hybrids. Linkage analysis of microsatellite loci, as well as genes of embryo lethality (Eml-R1) and hybrid dwarfness (Hdw-R1) was carried out in hybrids of Chinese Spring wheat with recombinant inbred lines as well as interline rye hybrids. Eml-R1 and Hdw-R1 could be mapped proximal and distal of two closely linked EST-SSR markers, Xgrm902 and Xgrm959, on rye chromosome 6R. Both rye genes are located on a segment of chromosome 6R that contains a breakpoint of evolutionary translocation between the ancestral chromosomes of homeologous groups 6 and 3. The obtained results are discussed in relation to genes interacting in developmental pathways as a class of causal genes of RI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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Review

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18 pages, 500 KiB

Open AccessReview

Using Morphogenic Genes to Improve Recovery and Regeneration of Transgenic Plants

by Bill Gordon-Kamm, Nagesh Sardesai, Maren Arling, Keith Lowe, George Hoerster, Scott Betts and Todd Jones

Plants 2019, 8(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8020038 - 11 Feb 2019

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 11063

Abstract

Efficient transformation of numerous important crops remains a challenge, due predominantly to our inability to stimulate growth of transgenic cells capable of producing plants. For years, this difficulty has been partially addressed by tissue culture strategies that improve regeneration either through somatic embryogenesis [...] Read more.

Efficient transformation of numerous important crops remains a challenge, due predominantly to our inability to stimulate growth of transgenic cells capable of producing plants. For years, this difficulty has been partially addressed by tissue culture strategies that improve regeneration either through somatic embryogenesis or meristem formation. Identification of genes involved in these developmental processes, designated here as morphogenic genes, provides useful tools in transformation research. In species from eudicots and cereals to gymnosperms, ectopic overexpression of genes involved in either embryo or meristem development has been used to stimulate growth of transgenic plants. However, many of these genes produce pleiotropic deleterious phenotypes. To mitigate this, research has been focusing on ways to take advantage of growth-stimulating morphogenic genes while later restricting or eliminating their expression in the plant. Methods of controlling ectopic overexpression include the use of transient expression, inducible promoters, tissue-specific promoters, and excision of the morphogenic genes. These methods of controlling morphogenic gene expression have been demonstrated in a variety of important crops. Here, we provide a review that highlights how ectopic overexpression of genes involved in morphogenesis has been used to improve transformation efficiencies, which is facilitating transformation of numerous recalcitrant crops. The use of morphogenic genes may help to alleviate one of the bottlenecks currently slowing progress in plant genome modification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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27 pages, 1478 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology: Following Mariotti’s Steps

by Angelo De Paolis, Giovanna Frugis, Donato Giannino, Maria Adelaide Iannelli, Giovanni Mele, Eddo Rugini, Cristian Silvestri, Francesca Sparvoli, Giulio Testone, Maria Luisa Mauro, Chiara Nicolodi and Sofia Caretto

Plants 2019, 8(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8010018 - 10 Jan 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8788

Abstract

This review is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Domenico Mariotti, who significantly contributed to establishing the Italian research community in Agricultural Genetics and carried out the first experiments of Agrobacterium-mediated plant genetic transformation and regeneration in Italy during the 1980s. Following [...] Read more.

This review is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Domenico Mariotti, who significantly contributed to establishing the Italian research community in Agricultural Genetics and carried out the first experiments of Agrobacterium-mediated plant genetic transformation and regeneration in Italy during the 1980s. Following his scientific interests as guiding principles, this review summarizes the recent advances obtained in plant biotechnology and fundamental research aiming to: (i) Exploit in vitro plant cell and tissue cultures to induce genetic variability and to produce useful metabolites; (ii) gain new insights into the biochemical function of Agrobacterium rhizogenes rol genes and their application to metabolite production, fruit tree transformation, and reverse genetics; (iii) improve genetic transformation in legume species, most of them recalcitrant to regeneration; (iv) untangle the potential of KNOTTED1-like homeobox (KNOX) transcription factors in plant morphogenesis as key regulators of hormonal homeostasis; and (v) elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the transition from juvenility to the adult phase in Prunus tree species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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13 pages, 2785 KiB

Open AccessReview

Patterning the Axes: A Lesson from the Root

by Riccardo Di Mambro, Sabrina Sabatini and Raffaele Dello Ioio

Plants 2019, 8(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8010008 - 31 Dec 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 9972

Abstract

How the body plan is established and maintained in multicellular organisms is a central question in developmental biology. Thanks to its simple and symmetric structure, the root represents a powerful tool to study the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of developmental [...] Read more.

How the body plan is established and maintained in multicellular organisms is a central question in developmental biology. Thanks to its simple and symmetric structure, the root represents a powerful tool to study the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of developmental axes. Plant roots show two main axes along which cells pass through different developmental stages and acquire different fates: the root proximodistal axis spans longitudinally from the hypocotyl junction (proximal) to the root tip (distal), whereas the radial axis spans transversely from the vasculature tissue (centre) to the epidermis (outer). Both axes are generated by stereotypical divisions occurring during embryogenesis and are maintained post-embryonically. Here, we review the latest scientific advances on how the correct formation of root proximodistal and radial axes is achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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9 pages, 960 KiB

Open AccessReview

Organogenesis at the Shoot Apical Meristem

by Jan Traas

Plants 2019, 8(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8010006 - 28 Dec 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9811

Abstract

Lateral organ initiation at the shoot apical meristem involves complex changes in growth rates and directions, ultimately leading to the formation of leaves, stems and flowers. Extensive molecular analysis identifies auxin and downstream transcriptional regulation as major elements in this process. This molecular [...] Read more.

Lateral organ initiation at the shoot apical meristem involves complex changes in growth rates and directions, ultimately leading to the formation of leaves, stems and flowers. Extensive molecular analysis identifies auxin and downstream transcriptional regulation as major elements in this process. This molecular regulatory network must somehow interfere with the structural elements of the cell, in particular the cell wall, to induce specific morphogenetic events. The cell wall is composed of a network of rigid cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix composed of water, polysaccharides such as pectins and hemicelluloses, proteins, and ions. I will discuss here current views on how auxin dependent pathways modulate wall structure to set particular growth rates and growth directions. This involves complex feedbacks with both the cytoskeleton and the cell wall. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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20 pages, 1852 KiB

Open AccessReview

Drawing a Line: Grasses and Boundaries

by Annis E Richardson and Sarah Hake

Plants 2019, 8(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8010004 - 25 Dec 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7434

Abstract

Delineation between distinct populations of cells is essential for organ development. Boundary formation is necessary for the maintenance of pluripotent meristematic cells in the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and differentiation of developing organs. Boundaries form between the meristem and organs, as well as [...] Read more.

Delineation between distinct populations of cells is essential for organ development. Boundary formation is necessary for the maintenance of pluripotent meristematic cells in the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and differentiation of developing organs. Boundaries form between the meristem and organs, as well as between organs and within organs. Much of the research into the boundary gene regulatory network (GRN) has been carried out in the eudicot model Arabidopsis thaliana. This work has identified a dynamic network of hormone and gene interactions. Comparisons with other eudicot models, like tomato and pea, have shown key conserved nodes in the GRN and species-specific alterations, including the recruitment of the boundary GRN in leaf margin development. How boundaries are defined in monocots, and in particular the grass family which contains many of the world’s staple food crops, is not clear. In this study, we review knowledge of the grass boundary GRN during vegetative development. We particularly focus on the development of a grass-specific within-organ boundary, the ligule, which directly impacts leaf architecture. We also consider how genome engineering and the use of natural diversity could be leveraged to influence key agronomic traits relative to leaf and plant architecture in the future, which is guided by knowledge of boundary GRNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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42 pages, 2631 KiB

Open AccessReview

Translating Flowering Time from Arabidopsis thaliana to Brassicaceae and Asteraceae Crop Species

by Willeke Leijten, Ronald Koes, Ilja Roobeek and Giovanna Frugis

Plants 2018, 7(4), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040111 - 16 Dec 2018

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 13250

Abstract

Flowering and seed set are essential for plant species to survive, hence plants need to adapt to highly variable environments to flower in the most favorable conditions. Endogenous cues such as plant age and hormones coordinate with the environmental cues like temperature and [...] Read more.

Flowering and seed set are essential for plant species to survive, hence plants need to adapt to highly variable environments to flower in the most favorable conditions. Endogenous cues such as plant age and hormones coordinate with the environmental cues like temperature and day length to determine optimal time for the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth. In a breeding context, controlling flowering time would help to speed up the production of new hybrids and produce high yield throughout the year. The flowering time genetic network is extensively studied in the plant model species Arabidopsis thaliana, however this knowledge is still limited in most crops. This article reviews evidence of conservation and divergence of flowering time regulation in A. thaliana with its related crop species in the Brassicaceae and with more distant vegetable crops within the Asteraceae family. Despite the overall conservation of most flowering time pathways in these families, many genes controlling this trait remain elusive, and the function of most Arabidopsis homologs in these crops are yet to be determined. However, the knowledge gathered so far in both model and crop species can be already exploited in vegetable crop breeding for flowering time control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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18 pages, 2259 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Vascular Tissues—Connecting Tissue Comes in All Shapes

by Eva Hellmann, Donghwi Ko, Raili Ruonala and Ykä Helariutta

Plants 2018, 7(4), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040109 - 13 Dec 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8372

Abstract

For centuries, humans have grown and used structures based on vascular tissues in plants. One could imagine that life would have developed differently without wood as a resource for building material, paper, heating energy, or fuel and without edible tubers as a food [...] Read more.

For centuries, humans have grown and used structures based on vascular tissues in plants. One could imagine that life would have developed differently without wood as a resource for building material, paper, heating energy, or fuel and without edible tubers as a food source. In this review, we will summarise the status of research on Arabidopsis thaliana vascular development and subsequently focus on how this knowledge has been applied and expanded in research on the wood of trees and storage organs of crop plants. We will conclude with an outlook on interesting open questions and exciting new research opportunities in this growing and important field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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13 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessReview

From A. rhizogenes RolD to Plant P5CS: Exploiting Proline to Control Plant Development

by Maurizio Trovato, Roberto Mattioli and Paolo Costantino

Plants 2018, 7(4), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040108 - 6 Dec 2018

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4782

Abstract

The capability of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium rhizogenes to reprogram plant development and induce adventitious hairy roots relies on the expression of a few root-inducing genes (rol A, B, C and D), which can be transferred from large virulence plasmids into [...] Read more.

The capability of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium rhizogenes to reprogram plant development and induce adventitious hairy roots relies on the expression of a few root-inducing genes (rol A, B, C and D), which can be transferred from large virulence plasmids into the genome of susceptible plant cells. Contrary to rolA, B and C, which are present in all the virulent strains of A. rhizogenes and control hairy root formation by affecting auxin and cytokinin signalling, rolD appeared non-essential and not associated with plant hormones. Its role remained elusive until it was discovered that it codes for a proline synthesis enzyme. The finding that, in addition to its role in protein synthesis and stress adaptation, proline is also involved in hairy roots induction, disclosed a novel role for this amino acid in plant development. Indeed, from this initial finding, proline was shown to be critically involved in a number of developmental processes, such as floral transition, embryo development, pollen fertility and root elongation. In this review, we present a historical survey on the rol genes focusing on the role of rolD and proline in plant development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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23 pages, 2253 KiB

Open AccessReview

Multiple Pathways in the Control of the Shade Avoidance Response

by Giovanna Sessa, Monica Carabelli, Marco Possenti, Giorgio Morelli and Ida Ruberti

Plants 2018, 7(4), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040102 - 17 Nov 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9234

Abstract

To detect the presence of neighboring vegetation, shade-avoiding plants have evolved the ability to perceive and integrate multiple signals. Among them, changes in light quality and quantity are central to elicit and regulate the shade avoidance response. Here, we describe recent progresses in [...] Read more.

To detect the presence of neighboring vegetation, shade-avoiding plants have evolved the ability to perceive and integrate multiple signals. Among them, changes in light quality and quantity are central to elicit and regulate the shade avoidance response. Here, we describe recent progresses in the comprehension of the signaling mechanisms underlying the shade avoidance response, focusing on Arabidopsis, because most of our knowledge derives from studies conducted on this model plant. Shade avoidance is an adaptive response that results in phenotypes with a high relative fitness in individual plants growing within dense vegetation. However, it affects the growth, development, and yield of crops, and the design of new strategies aimed at attenuating shade avoidance at defined developmental stages and/or in specific organs in high-density crop plantings is a major challenge for the future. For this reason, in this review, we also report on recent advances in the molecular description of the shade avoidance response in crops, such as maize and tomato, and discuss their similarities and differences with Arabidopsis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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11 pages, 1800 KiB

Open AccessReview

The CLV-WUS Stem Cell Signaling Pathway: A Roadmap to Crop Yield Optimization

by Jennifer C. Fletcher

Plants 2018, 7(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7040087 - 19 Oct 2018

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 13873

Abstract

The shoot apical meristem at the growing shoot tip acts a stem cell reservoir that provides cells to generate the entire above-ground architecture of higher plants. Many agronomic plant yield traits such as tiller number, flower number, fruit number, and kernel row number [...] Read more.

The shoot apical meristem at the growing shoot tip acts a stem cell reservoir that provides cells to generate the entire above-ground architecture of higher plants. Many agronomic plant yield traits such as tiller number, flower number, fruit number, and kernel row number are therefore defined by the activity of the shoot apical meristem and its derivatives, the floral meristems. Studies in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana demonstrated that a molecular negative feedback loop called the CLAVATA (CLV)-WUSCHEL (WUS) pathway regulates stem cell maintenance in shoot and floral meristems. CLV-WUS pathway components are associated with quantitative trait loci (QTL) for yield traits in crop plants such as oilseed, tomato, rice, and maize, and may have played a role in crop domestication. The conservation of these pathway components across the plant kingdom provides an opportunity to use cutting edge techniques such as genome editing to enhance yield traits in a wide variety of agricultural plant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Development and Organogenesis: From Basic Principles to Applied Research)

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