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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2023) | Viewed by 45656

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Dr. Bishnu Acharya

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Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
Interests: biomass; bio-based materials; biocomposites; nanocomposites; cellulose nanocrystalline; cellulose-based bioplastics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

The growing environmental issues with non-biodegradable petroleum-based plastics has led to the research and development of bioplastics. The government around the world also responded by developing policies to promote biodegradable plastics. However, challenges remain for bioplastics to meet the performance of the petroleum-based plastics. In other cases, bioplastic materials that are designed to match the mechanical and physico-chemical properties of petroleum-based plastics do not degrade completely under normal composting conditions. This has led to studies attempting to develop bioplastics with appropriate mechanical and physico-chemical properties and biodegradability.

This Special Issue will cover research related to the synthesis and characterization, biodegradation, development for packaging and smart applications, techno-economic and life cycle assessment, and policies related to the development of bioplastics.

Dr. Bishnu Acharya
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Bioplastic
Biodegradable Materials
Smart materials
Food packaging
Techno-economic and life cycle assessment

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 3024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Facile Preparation of Cellulose Bioplastic from Cladophora sp. Algae via Hydrogel Method

by Steven Steven, Anna Niska Fauza, Yati Mardiyati, Sigit Puji Santosa and Silvia Mar’atus Shoimah

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4699; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214699 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9093

Abstract

Bioplastic has been widely studied in the past decades as a replacement for non-biodegradable and non-environmentally friendly plastic. One of the promising materials to produce bioplastic is cellulose. However, it is rarely used as the main component for bioplastic production. This study reports a facile process to prepare bioplastic using the pure cellulose content of Cladophora sp. algae via the hydrogel method. The effect of epichlorohydrin (ECH) concentrations as the cross-linking agent was investigated toward the biodegradability, thermal, and mechanical properties of the cellulose bioplastic obtained. The results showed that ECH concentrations affected the properties of the cellulose bioplastic produced due to the number of cross-links formed during the process. The cellulose bioplastic possessed relatively high thermal and mechanical properties. The cellulose bioplastic performed excellent biodegradability, as it was degraded by more than 40% within five days. Thus, the cellulose of Cladophora sp. algae has the potential to be developed as the main component for bioplastic application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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10 pages, 4282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conversion of Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Polymer into Activated Carbon and Its Feasibility to Produce Green Fuel

by Firdous Ahmad Ahangar, Umer Rashid, Junaid Ahmad, Toshiki Tsubota and Ali Alsalme

Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3952; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13223952 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4557

Abstract

In this study, a novel idea was proposed to convert the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste drinking-water bottles into activated carbon (AC) to use for waste cooking oil (WCO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feasibility to convert into esters. The acidic and basic char were prepared by using the waste PET bottles. The physiochemical properties were determined by employing various analytical techniques, such as field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and temperature-programmed desorption – ammonia/carbon dioxide (TPD-NH₃/CO₂). The prepared PET H₃PO₄ and PET KOH showed the higher surface area, thus illustrating that the surface of both materials has enough space for impregnation of foreign precursors. The TPD-NH₃ and TPD-CO₂ results depicted that PET H₃PO₄ is found to have higher acidity, i.e., 18.17 mmolg⁻¹, due to the attachment of phosponyl groups to it during pretreatment, whereas, in the case of PET KOH, the basicity increases to 13.49 mmolg⁻¹. The conversion results show that prepared materials can be used as a support for an acidic and basic catalyst for the conversion of WCO and PFAD into green fuel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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13 pages, 3684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Humidity-Responsive Photonic Films and Coatings Based on Tuned Cellulose Nanocrystals/Glycerol/Polyethylene Glycol

by Amin Babaei-Ghazvini and Bishnu Acharya

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3695; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213695 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2516

Abstract

It has been extensively reported that cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) can represent structural colors due to their unique chiral-nematic self-assembly. However, the application of this remarkable structure does need further investigation. It has been challenging to keep the selective reflection band (SRB) resulting from the CNC structure in the visible spectrum. Herein, composition of CNC colloidal suspensions with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and glycerol (Gly) have been studied to develop humidity-responsive sensors in the form of coatings and films. The fabricated samples were characterized for their mechanical properties, optical properties, water uptake capacity, water contact angle, and surface roughness. Additionally, the chemical structure of the samples was studied with FTIR spectroscopy. The produced humidity indicators on microbial glass slides were maintained and tested in a different relative humidity range from 20% to 98% with a different color response from blue to red, respectively. The color change of the humidity sensors was reversible for several cycles. It should be noted that the color change can be detected easily by the naked eye. The water uptake test showed that pure CNC and CNC/Gly had the lowest (34%) and highest (83%) water absorption levels. The mechanical tests for CNC/PEG composites showed the highest tensile strength (40.22 MPa). Moreover, microstructural characterizations confirmed the CNC pitch formation in all the samples. Addition of the fillers increased the CNC pitch, resulting in a mesoporous film formation. These produced humidity sensors are promising candidates in food and drug packaging due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and cost-effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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17 pages, 4553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polylactic Acid Cellulose Nanocomposite Films Comprised of Wood and Tunicate CNCs Modified with Tannic Acid and Octadecylamine

by Matthew J. Dunlop, Ronald Sabo, Rabin Bissessur and Bishnu Acharya

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3661; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213661 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2504

Abstract

Herein, a one-pot strategy was used to prepare hydrophobic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) surface-modified with tannic acid and octadecylamine. By this strategy, CNCs derived from wood (W-CNC) and tunicates (T-CNC) were modified in situ and incorporated into a polylactic acid (PLA) matrix using two methods, without first drying the CNCs. Films of PLA-CNC nanocomposites were prepared both by solution casting and by wet compounding in a thermo-kinetic mixer, followed by melt extrusion. Various properties of these PLA nanocomposites were evaluated herein, along with an assessment of how these properties vary with the type of CNC reinforcement. Cast films with a hybrid mixture of wood and tunicate CNCs displayed improved mechanical properties compared to either wood or tunicate CNCs, but extruded films did not show this hybrid effect. The water vapor permeability of the extruded nanocomposite films with 1% CNCs was reduced by as much as 60% compared to the PLA films. The composite films also showed enhanced biodegradation compared to neat PLA films. These results demonstrate that wet compounded PLA composites produced with wood or tunicate CNCs modified using a one-pot, water-based route have improved barrier and biodegradation properties, indicating a potential for packaging applications without having to dry the CNCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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13 pages, 13922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combination of Sorbitol and Glycerol, as Plasticizers, and Oxidized Starch Improves the Physicochemical Characteristics of Films for Food Preservation

by Berenice González-Torres, Miguel Ángel Robles-García, Melesio Gutiérrez-Lomelí, J. Jesús Padilla-Frausto, Claudia Luz Navarro-Villarruel, Carmen Lizette Del-Toro-Sánchez, Francisco Rodríguez-Félix, Arturo Barrera-Rodríguez, Mireya Zoila Reyna-Villela, María Guadalupe Avila-Novoa and Francisco Javier Reynoso-Marín

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3356; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193356 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

The aim of this work was to use glycerol (Gly) and sorbitol (Sor) as plasticizers with oxidized starch potato (OS) to produce biodegradable and environmentally friendly films, and to demonstrate the resulting physicochemical and functional viability without subtracting the organoleptic characteristics of the food. Analyses by water vapor permeability (WVP), attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectra (ATR-FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile strength (TS), and transparency (UV) showed that the best film result was with 1.5 g of Gly and 2.0 g of Sor, conferred shine, elasticity 19.42 ± 6.20%, and mechanical support. The starch oxidized to 2.5%, contributing a greater transparency of 0.33 ± 0.12 and solubility of 78.90 ± 0.94%, as well as less permeability to water vapor 6.22 ± 0.38 gmm⁻² d⁻¹ kPa⁻¹. The films obtained provide an alternative for use in food due to their organic compounds, excellent visual presentation, and barrier characteristics that maintain their integrity and, therefore, their functionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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13 pages, 1508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Empirical Model for Predicting Biodegradation Profiles of Glycopolymers

by Toma-Leonida Dragomir, Ana-Maria Pană, Valentin Ordodi, Vasile Gherman, Gabriela-Alina Dumitrel and Sorin Nanu

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1819; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111819 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

Pollution caused by plastic materials has a great impact on the environment. The biodegradation process is a good treatment solution for common polymers and biodegradation susceptible ones. The present work introduces new insight into the biodegradation process from a mathematical point of view, as it envisions a new empirical model for this complex process. The model is an exponential function with two different time constants and a time delay, which follows the weight loss profile of the polymer during the biodegradation process. Moreover, this function can be generated as the output variable of a dynamic exogenous system described through state equations. The newly developed models displayed a good fit against the experimental data, as shown by statistical indicators. In addition, the new empirical model was compared to kinetics models available in the literature and the correlation coefficients were closest to 1 for the new empirical model in all discussed cases. The mathematical operations were performed in the MATLAB Simulink environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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Review

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32 pages, 3996 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Enhancing the Potential of Polymer Composites Using Biochar as a Filler: A Review

by Mohamed Aboughaly, Amin Babaei-Ghazvini, Piyali Dhar, Ravi Patel and Bishnu Acharya

Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3981; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193981 - 3 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2394

Abstract

This article discusses the scope biochar’s uses; biochar is a sustainable organic material, rich in carbon, that can be synthesized from various types of biomass feedstock using thermochemical reactions such as pyrolysis or carbonization. Biochar is an eco-friendly filler material that can enhance polymer composites’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical performances. In comparison to three inorganic fillers, namely carbon black, carbon nanotubes (CNT), and carbon filaments, this paper explores the optimal operating conditions for regulating biochar’s physical characteristics, including pore size, macro- and microporosity, and mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Additionally, this article presents a comparative analysis of biochar yield from various thermochemical processes. Moreover, the review examines how the surface functionality, surface area, and particle size of biochar can influence its mechanical and electrical performance as a filler material in polymer composites at different biochar loads. The study showcases the outstanding properties of biochar and recommends optimal loads that can improve the mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of polymer composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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14 pages, 1522 KiB

Open AccessReview

Properties Comparison of Oxidized and Heat Moisture Treated (HMT) Starch-Based Biodegradable Films

by Yana Cahyana, Christoper Verrell, Dodo Kriswanda, Ghina Almira Aulia, Namira Azkia Yusra, Herlina Marta, Nandi Sukri, Safarov Jasur Esirgapovich and Sultanova Shakhnoza Abduvakhitovna

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2046; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092046 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Starch-based biodegradable films have been studied for a long time. To improve starch properties and to increase film characteristics, starch is commonly modified. Amongst different types of starch modifications, oxidation and heat moisture treatment are interesting to explore. Unfortunately, review on these modifications for film application is rarely found, although these starch modifications provide interesting results regarding the starch and film properties. This paper aims to discuss the progress of research on oxidized and heat moisture-treated-starch for edible film application. In general, both HMT and oxidation modification on starch lead to an increase in film’s tensile strength and Young’s modulus, suggesting an improvement in film mechanical properties. The elongation, however, tends to decrease in oxidized starch-based film, hence more brittle film. Meanwhile, HMT tends to result in a more ductile film. The drawback of HMT film is its lower transparency, while the opposite is observed in oxidized films. The observation on WVP (water vapor permeability) of HMT starch-based film shows that the trend of WVP is not consistent. Similarly, an inconsistent trend of WVP is also found in oxidized starch films. This suggests that the WVP parameter is very sensitive to intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Starch source and its concentration in film, film thickness, RH (relative humidity) of film storage, oxidation method and its severity, plasticizer type and its concentration in film, and crystallinity value may partly play roles in determining film properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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22 pages, 1007 KiB

Open AccessReview

Comparison of Protein Content, Availability, and Different Properties of Plant Protein Sources with Their Application in Packaging

by Anupriya Senthilkumaran, Amin Babaei-Ghazvini, Michael T. Nickerson and Bishnu Acharya

Polymers 2022, 14(5), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14051065 - 7 Mar 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5543

Abstract

Plant-based proteins are considered to be one of the most promising biodegradable polymers for green packaging materials. Despite this, the practical application of the proteins in the packaging industry on a large scale has yet to be achieved. In the following review, most of the data about plant protein-based packaging materials are presented in two parts. Firstly, the crude protein content of oilseed cakes and meals, cereals, legumes, vegetable waste, fruit waste, and cover crops are indexed, along with the top global producers. In the second part, we present the different production techniques (casting, extrusion, and molding), as well as compositional parameters for the production of bioplastics from the best protein sources including sesame, mung, lentil, pea, soy, peanut, rapeseed, wheat, corn, amaranth, sunflower, rice, sorghum, and cottonseed. The inclusion of these protein sources in packaging applications is also evaluated based on their various properties such as barrier, thermal, and mechanical properties, solubility, surface hydrophobicity, water uptake capacity, and advantages. Having this information could assist the readers in exercising judgement regarding the right source when approving the applications of these proteins as biodegradable packaging material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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23 pages, 1445 KiB

Open AccessReview

Syngas Fermentation for the Production of Bio-Based Polymers: A Review

by Nirpesh Dhakal and Bishnu Acharya

Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3917; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13223917 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3695

Abstract

Increasing environmental awareness among the general public and legislators has driven this modern era to seek alternatives to fossil-derived products such as fuel and plastics. Addressing environmental issues through bio-based products driven from microbial fermentation of synthetic gas (syngas) could be a future endeavor, as this could result in both fuel and plastic in the form of bioethanol and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Abundant availability in the form of cellulosic, lignocellulosic, and other organic and inorganic wastes presents syngas catalysis as an interesting topic for commercialization. Fascination with syngas fermentation is trending, as it addresses the limitations of conventional technologies like direct biochemical conversion and Fischer–Tropsch’s method for the utilization of lignocellulosic biomass. A plethora of microbial strains is available for syngas fermentation and PHA production, which could be exploited either in an axenic form or in a mixed culture. These microbes constitute diverse biochemical pathways supported by the activity of hydrogenase and carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH), thus resulting in product diversity. There are always possibilities of enzymatic regulation and/or gene tailoring to enhance the process’s effectiveness. PHA productivity drags the techno-economical perspective of syngas fermentation, and this is further influenced by syngas impurities, gas–liquid mass transfer (GLMT), substrate or product inhibition, downstream processing, etc. Product variation and valorization could improve the economical perspective and positively impact commercial sustainability. Moreover, choices of single-stage or multi-stage fermentation processes upon product specification followed by microbial selection could be perceptively optimized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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17 pages, 1063 KiB

Open AccessReview

Antimicrobial Biodegradable Food Packaging Based on Chitosan and Metal/Metal-Oxide Bio-Nanocomposites: A Review

by Amin Babaei-Ghazvini, Bishnu Acharya and Darren R. Korber

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2790; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162790 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6041

Abstract

Finding a practical alternative to decrease the use of conventional polymers in the plastic industry has become an acute concern since industrially-produced plastic waste, mainly conventional food packaging, has become an environmental crisis worldwide. Biodegradable polymers have attracted the attention of researchers as a possible alternative for fossil-based plastics. Chitosan-based packaging materials, in particular, have become a recent focus for the biodegradable food packaging sector due to their biodegradability, non-toxic nature, and antimicrobial properties. Chitosan, obtained from chitin, is the most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose. Chitosan is an ideal biomaterial for active packaging as it can be fabricated alone or combined with other polymers as well as metallic antimicrobial particles, either as layers or as coacervates for examination as functional components of active packaging systems. Chitosan-metal/metal oxide bio-nanocomposites have seen growing interest as antimicrobial packaging materials, with several different mechanisms of inhibition speculated to include direct physical interactions or chemical reactions (i.e., the production of reactive oxygen species as well as the increased dissolution of toxic metal cations). The use of chitosan and its metal/metal oxide (i.e., titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and silver nanoparticles) bio-nanocomposites in packaging applications are the primary focus of discussion in this review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)

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