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Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2024 | Viewed by 13621

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xiaobing Cao

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Guest Editor

Bamboo Research Institute, School of Art and Design, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: biomass; thermochemical conversion; biochar; organic solid waste; CO₂ capture

Dr. Xiefei Zhu

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Guest Editor

Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei 230026, China
Interests: biomass; thermochemical conversion; biochar; organic solid waste; CO₂ capture

Dr. Haizhou Gong

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Co-Guest Editor

College of Animal Science and Technology • College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: biopolymer; biological macromolecule; environment and animal; biopolymer and public health

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the last few years, issues related to environmental pollution, health and safety have been pushing the global research community to find effective carbon-negative technologies capable of replacing petroleum-based materials and solve the related problems. In this context, biopolymers have gradually gained popularity in several application, such as manufacturing, biomedical engineering, the food industry, packaging, the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, agriculture, the energy sector, green nanotechnology and recycling, by attracting the interest of industry, which is increasingly being forced to comply with environmental and health protection constraints. This Special Issue invites the research community to contribute their expertise, enthusiasm and scientific research to expand the boundaries of our knowledge and address new challenges. In particular, we welcome work proposing new environmentally sustainable, biopolymer-based composites capable of outperforming traditional synthetic materials.

This Special Issue will publish innovative research (articles, reviews, research reports, etc.) related to the development, processing, characterization and application of biopolymer-based composites.

Dr. Xiaobing Cao
Dr. Xiefei Zhu
Dr. Haizhou Gong
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

gel material design
biomass resource utilization and design
engineered biomaterials
energy device design
bamboo and wood composite design
waste resource utilization design
biopolymer
negative carbon design

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 5448 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

All-Cellulose Nanofiber-Based Sustainable Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Enhanced Energy Harvesting

by Mengyao Cao, Yanglei Chen, Jie Sha, Yanglei Xu, Sheng Chen and Feng Xu

Polymers 2024, 16(13), 1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131784 - 24 Jun 2024

Viewed by 746

Abstract

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) show promising potential in energy harvesting and sensing for various electronic devices in multiple fields. However, the majority of materials currently utilized in TENGs are unrenewable, undegradable, and necessitate complex preparation processes, resulting in restricted performance and durability for practical applications. Here, we propose a strategy that combines straightforward chemical modification and electrospinning techniques to construct all-cellulose nanofiber-based TENGs with substantial power output. By using cellulose acetate (CA) as the raw material, the prepared cellulose membranes (CMs) and fluorinated cellulose membranes (FCMs) with different functional groups and hydrophobic properties are applied as the tribopositive and tribonegative friction layers of FCM/CM-based triboelectric nanogenerators (FC-TENGs), respectively. This approach modulates the microstructure and triboelectric polarity of the friction materials in FC-TENGs, thus enhancing their triboelectric charge densities and contact areas. As a result, the assembled FC-TENGs demonstrate enhanced output performance (94 V, 8.5 µA, and 0.15 W/m²) and exceptional durability in 15,000 cycles. The prepared FC-TENGs with efficient energy harvesting capabilities can be implemented in practical applications to power various electronic devices. Our work strengthens the viability of cellulose-based TENGs for sustainable development and provides novel perspectives on the cost-effective and valuable utilization of cellulose in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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17 pages, 13699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Oriented Strand Board Made of Heat-Treated Bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.) Backer) Strands

by Sena Maulana, Astri Aulia Suwanda, Rio Ardiansyah Murda, Petar Antov, Rahma Nur Komariah, Muhammad Iqbal Maulana, Sarah Augustina, Seng Hua Lee, Melbi Mahardika, Aditya Rianjanu, Tarmizi Taher, Lubos Kristak, Yazid Bindar, Apri Heri Iswanto and Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis

Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1692; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121692 - 14 Jun 2024

Viewed by 629

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the effect of pre-heat treatment on bamboo strand properties and its impact on the properties of the resulting bamboo-oriented strand board (BOSB). Giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.) Backer) with a density of 0.53 g cm⁻³ was converted into bamboo strands. These strands were pre-heat-treated at 140 and 160 °C for a duration of 1, 2, and 3 h. Changes in the chemical composition of the strand due to subsequent treatment were assessed. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD) were used to determine the changes in the chemical composition of bamboo strands. The BOSB panels were produced with a target density of 0.7 g cm⁻³. The manufacturing of the BOSB was conducted in three layers with a ratio of 25:50:25, bonded with phenol-formaldehyde resin. The physical and mechanical properties of the laboratory-fabricated BOSB were tested in compliance with the criteria given in JIS A 5908 standards. Comparisons were made against OSB CSA 0437.0 Grade O-1 commercial standard. The pre-heat treatment led to chemical alterations within the material when set at 140 and 160 °C for 1 to 3 hours (h). FTIR spectral analysis demonstrated that longer exposure and higher temperatures resulted in fewer functional groups within the bamboo strands. The increased temperature and duration of pre-heat treatment enhanced the crystallinity index (CI). The dimensional stability and mechanical properties of the composites were improved significantly as hemicellulose and extractive content were reduced. This study demonstrated that the pre-heat treatment of bamboo strands at a temperature of 160 °C for a duration of 1 h was an adequate approach for heat modification and fabrication of BOSB panels with acceptable properties according to OSB CSA 0437.0 Grade O-1 commercial standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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13 pages, 11624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Glycerol Concentrations on the Characteristics of Cellulose Films from Cattail (Typha angustifolia L.) Flowers

by Nuanchai Khotsaeng, Wilaiwan Simchuer, Thanonchat Imsombut and Prasong Srihanam

Polymers 2023, 15(23), 4535; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15234535 - 25 Nov 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1841

Abstract

Plastic waste has become a big problem for the environment globally. Biodegradable polymers are a potential replacement for plastics that can have a positive outcome both environmentally and economically. In this work, we used acid hydrolysis and alkaline treatment to extract cellulose fibers from cattails. The obtained cellulose was used as a substrate for the fabrication of cellulose film using a casting technique on plastic plates. Different concentrations of the plasticizer, glycerol, were used to prepare films for comparison, and its effects on the film’s characteristics were observed. The morphology, chemical structure, and thermal stability of the cattail cellulose (CTC) films were studied using techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), respectively. Measurements of transparency, moisture content (MC), water solubility (MS), and water contact angle (WCA) were also performed. Introducing glycerol into the films increased the transparency, MC, and WS values, as well as the gap width between film textures. However, it resulted in a decrease in the WCA of the films, showing that the hydrophilicity of the films is increased by the addition of glycerol. The interaction between the functional groups of cellulose and glycerol was established from the ATR-FTIR and XRD data. The obtained results indicated that glycerol affected the thermal stability and the degree of crystallinity of the produced films. Accordingly, the hydrophilicity of the cellulose film was increased by increasing the glycerol content; therefore, cattail cellulose films can be used as a biodegradable alternative to plastic in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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13 pages, 4218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement in Phase Compatibility and Mechanical Properties of Poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide)/thermoplastic Starch Blends with Citric Acid

by Prasong Srihanam, Yaowalak Srisuwan, Theeraphol Phromsopha, Apirada Manphae and Yodthong Baimark

Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3966; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193966 - 1 Oct 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1330

Abstract

Flexible poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide) block copolymer (PLLA-PEG-PLLA) bioplastic has been blended with low-cost thermoplastic starch (TPS) to prepare fully biodegradable bioplastics. However, the mechanical properties of PLLA-PEG-PLLA matrix decrease after the addition of TPS. In this work, citric acid (CA) was used as a compatibilizer to improve the phase compatibility and mechanical properties of PLLA-PEG-PLLA/TPS blends. TPS was first modified with CA (1.5 %wt, 3 %wt, and 4.5%wt) before melt blending with PLLA-PEG-PLLA. The PLLA-PEG-PLLA/modified TPS ratio was constant at 60/40 by weight. CA modification of TPS suppressed the crystallinity and enhanced the thermal stability of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA matrix, as determined through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), respectively. The compatibility between the dispersed TPS and PLLA-PEG-PLLA phases was improved through modification of TPS with CA, as revealed by the smaller size of the co-continuous TPS phase from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Increasing the hydrophilicity of the blends containing modified TPS confirmed the improvement in phase compatibility of the components. From the tensile test, the ultimate tensile strength, elongation at break, and Young’s modulus of the blends increased with the CA content. In conclusion, CA showed a promising behavior in improving the phase compatibility and mechanical properties of PLLA-PEG-PLLA/TPS blends. These PLLA-PEG-PLLA/modified TPS blends have potential to be used as flexible bioplastic products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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21 pages, 5822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Biodegradable Thermosetting Plastic Using Dialdehyde Pineapple Stem Starch

by Wasan Tessanan, Pranee Phinyocheep and Taweechai Amornsakchai

Polymers 2023, 15(18), 3832; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15183832 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2241

Abstract

Starch extracted from pineapple stem waste underwent an environmentally friendly modification process characterized by low-energy consumption. This process resulted in the creation of dialdehyde pineapple stem starch featuring varying aldehyde contents ranging from 10% to 90%. Leveraging these dialdehyde starches, thermosetting plastics were meticulously developed by incorporating glycerol as a plasticizer. Concurrently, unmodified pineapple stem starch was employed as a control to produce thermoplastic material under identical conditions. The objective of streamlining the processing steps was pursued by adopting a direct hot compression molding technique. This enabled the transformation of starch powders into plastic sheets without the need for water-based gelatinization. Consequently, the dialdehyde starch-based thermosetting plastics exhibited exceptional mechanical properties, boasting a modulus within the range of 1862 MPa to 2000 MPa and a strength of 15 MPa to 42 MPa. Notably, their stretchability remained relatively modest, spanning from 0.8% to 2.4%. Comparatively, these properties significantly outperformed the thermoplastic counterpart derived from unmodified starch. Tailoring the mechanical performance of the thermosetting plastics was achieved by manipulating the glycerol content, ranging from 30% to 50%. Phase morphologies of the thermoset starch unveiled a uniformly distributed microstructure without any observable starch particles. This stood in contrast to the heterogeneous structure exhibited by the thermoplastic derived from unmodified starch. X-ray diffraction patterns indicated the absence of a crystalline structure within the thermosets, likely attributed to the establishment of a crosslinked structure. The resultant network formation in the thermosets directly correlated with enhanced water resistance. Remarkably, the thermosetting starch originating from pineapple stem starch demonstrated continued biodegradability following a soil burial test, albeit at a notably slower rate when compared to its thermoplastic counterpart. These findings hold the potential to pave the way for the utilization of starch-based products, thereby replacing non-biodegradable petroleum-based materials and contributing to the creation of more enduring and sustainable commodities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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18 pages, 7725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Enhanced Mechanical, Thermal, and Crystallization Performance of PLA/PBS Composite by Glass Fiber Coupling Agent Modification

by Zhiqiang Fan, Junchang Gao, Yadong Wu, Dewu Yin, Shunxing Chen, Hua Tu, Tiantian Wei, Chaoran Zhang, Haoxiang Zhu and Huile Jin

Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3164; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153164 - 26 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

To improve the toughness and heat resistance of polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS) was sufficiently blended with PLA as the base matrix, and the glass fiber (GF) that was modified with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (KF-GF) was added as the reinforcement. The results demonstrated a noteworthy boost in both mechanical and heat resistance properties when employing KH-GF, in comparison to pristine GF. When the content of KH-GF reached 20%, the tensile, flexural, and IZOD impact strength of the composites were 65.53 MPa, 83.43 MPa, and 7.45 kJ/m², respectively, which were improved by 123%, 107%, and 189% compared to the base matrix, respectively. This enhancement was primarily attributed to the stronger interfacial adhesion between KH-GF and the PLA/PBS matrix. Furthermore, the Vicat softening temperature of the composites reached 128.7 °C, which was a result of increased crystallinity. In summary, the incorporation of KH-GF into PLA/PBS composites resulted in notable enhancements in their mechanical properties, crystallinity, and thermal characteristics. The high performance KH-GF-reinforced PLA/PBS composite showed a broad application potential in the field of biodegradable packaging, biodegradable textiles, and biodegradable plastic bags. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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15 pages, 18363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Biodegradable Rigid Foams from Pineapple Field Waste

by Atitiya Namphonsane, Taweechai Amornsakchai, Chin Hua Chia, Kheng Lim Goh, Sombat Thanawan, Rungtiwa Wongsagonsup and Siwaporn Meejoo Smith

Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2895; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132895 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2947

Abstract

Pineapple materials sourced from agricultural waste have been employed to process novel bio-degradable rigid composite foams. The matrix for the foam consisted of starch extracted from pineapple stem, known for its high amylose content, while the filler comprised non-fibrous cellulosic materials sourced from pineapple leaf. In contrast to traditional methods that involve preparing a batter, this study adopted a unique approach where the starch gel containing glycerol were first formed using a household microwave oven, followed by blending the filler into the gel using a two-roll mill. The resulting mixture was then foamed at 160 °C using a compression molding machine. The foams displayed densities ranging from 0.43–0.51 g/cm³ and exhibited a highly amorphous structure. Notably, the foams demonstrated an equilibrium moisture content of approximately 8–10% and the ability to absorb 150–200% of their own weight without disintegration. Flexural strengths ranged from 1.5–4.5 MPa, varying with the filler and glycerol contents. Biodegradability tests using a soil burial method revealed complete disintegration of the foam into particles measuring 1 mm or smaller within 15 days. Moreover, to showcase practical applications, an environmentally friendly single-use foam tray was fabricated. This novel method, involving gel formation followed by filler blending, sets it apart from previous works. The findings highlight the potential of pineapple waste materials for producing sustainable bio-degradable foams with desirable properties and contribute to the field of sustainable materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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14 pages, 13508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insulin-Loaded Soybean Trypsin Inhibitor-Chitosan Nanoparticles: Preparation, Characterization, and Protective Effect Evaluation

by Yihao Zhang, Ruijia Liu, Qixu Feng, He Li, You Li and Xinqi Liu

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2648; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122648 - 11 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1451

Abstract

The aim of this work was to prepare insulin-loaded nanoparticles using soybean trypsin inhibitor (STI) and chitosan (CS) as a potential coating. The nanoparticles were prepared by complex coacervation, and characterized for their particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and encapsulation efficiency. In addition, the insulin release and enzymatic degradation of nanoparticles in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) were evaluated. The results showed that the optimal conditions for preparing insulin-loaded soybean trypsin inhibitor-chitosan (INs-STI-CS) nanoparticles were as follows: CS concentration of 2.0 mg/mL, STI concentration of 1.0 mg/mL, and pH 6.0. The INs-STI-CS nanoparticles prepared at this condition had a high insulin encapsulation efficiency of 85.07%, the particle diameter size was 350 ± 5 nm, and the PDI value was 0.13. The results of the in vitro evaluation of simulated gastrointestinal digestion showed that the prepared nanoparticles could improve the stability of insulin in the gastrointestinal tract. Compared with free insulin, the insulin loaded in INs-STI-CS nanoparticles was retained at 27.71% after 10 h of digestion in the intestinal tract, while free insulin was completely digested. These findings will provide a theoretical basis for improving the stability of oral insulin in the gastrointestinal tract. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymer: Design, Property, and Application)

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