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18 pages, 7659 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Coir Fiber Surface Treatment on Interfacial Properties of Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites

by Shaofeng Ru, Can Zhao, Songmei Yang and Dong Liang

Polymers 2022, 14(17), 3488; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14173488 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2740

Abstract

Coir-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composites are an environmentally friendly material, and the use of coir fibers improves the mechanical properties of epoxy resin. In order to improve the interfacial adhesion between coir fibers and the epoxy resin matrix, microwave treatment, alkali treatment, acetic anhydride [...] Read more.

Coir-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composites are an environmentally friendly material, and the use of coir fibers improves the mechanical properties of epoxy resin. In order to improve the interfacial adhesion between coir fibers and the epoxy resin matrix, microwave treatment, alkali treatment, acetic anhydride modification, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane modification and their reasonable combination method treatments were carried out on coir fibers, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyze the effects of the different treatments on the characteristics of the coir fibers, and single-fiber pullout tests were performed on the pullout specimens made from the above coir fibers. The results calculated by the proposed estimation method show that the combination method of alkali treatment and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane surface modification could better enhance the interfacial bonding ability between coir fibers and epoxy resin with an interfacial shear strength and pullout energy of 6.728 MPa and 40.237 N·mm, respectively. The principal analysis shows that the method can form both mechanical interlocking and chemical bonds at the interface to enhance the interfacial bonding ability. This study provides a more suitable method for improving the interfacial properties of coir-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composites and has implications for the study of natural fiber composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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18 pages, 6873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nano-SiO₂ Modification on Mechanical and Insulation Properties of Basalt Fiber Reinforced Composites

by Hechen Liu, Yu Sun, Yunfei Yu, Mingjia Zhang, Le Li and Long Ma

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3353; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163353 - 17 Aug 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2591

Abstract

Basalt fiber (BF) has high mechanical strength, good insulation performance and low cost. It is suitable to be used as reinforcement material in the manufacture of electrical equipment. However, the large surface inertia of basalt fiber makes it difficult to combine with the [...] Read more.

Basalt fiber (BF) has high mechanical strength, good insulation performance and low cost. It is suitable to be used as reinforcement material in the manufacture of electrical equipment. However, the large surface inertia of basalt fiber makes it difficult to combine with the matrix material, which seriously limits its service life and application scenarios. In addition, the serious vacancy in the research of insulation properties also limits its production and application in the electrical field. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of difficult bonding between basalt fiber and resin matrix and make up for the research blank of basalt fiber composites in insulation performance, this paper provides a basalt fiber modification method—SiO₂ coating, and tests the insulation and mechanical properties of the modified composite. We used nano-SiO₂ coating solution to modify basalt fiber, and manufactured BF/resin composite (BFRP) by hand lay-up and hot-pressing technology, and experimentally analyzed the influence of nano-SiO₂ content on the mechanical and insulation properties of the modified composite. Fourier transform infrared spectrum and scanning electron microscope analysis showed that nano-SiO₂ was successfully coated on basalt fibers. Through the microdroplet debonding test, it was found that the IFSS of fiber/resin was improved by 35.15%, 72.97 and 18.9%, respectively, after the modification of the coating solution with SiO₂ concentration of 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%, showing better interface properties; the single fiber tensile test found that the tensile strength of the modified fiber increased slightly. Among all composites, 1 wt% SiO₂ coating modified composites showed the best comprehensive properties. The surface flashover voltage and breakdown field strength reached 13.12 kV and 33 kV/mm, respectively, which were 34.6% and 83% higher than unmodified composite. The dielectric loss is reduced to 1.43%, which is 33.8% lower than the dielectric loss (2.16%) of the untreated composite, showing better insulation ability; the tensile strength, bending strength and interlaminar shear strength were increased to 618.22 MPa, 834.74 MPa and 16.29 MPa, respectively, which were increased by 53%, 42.4% and 59.7%, compared with untreated composites. DMA and glass transition temperature showed that the modified composite had better heat resistance. TGA experiments showed that the resin content of the modified composite increased, and the internal structure of the composite became denser. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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10 pages, 1401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties and Water Absorption Capacity of Hybrid GFRP Composites

by Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman, Noaman Mohammed Ridha Dabbagh, Kushairi Mohd Salleh, Esri Nasrullah Saharuddin, Nur Fashiha Mat Radzi, Mohd Amir Ashraff Azham, Shahrul Faizi Abdullah Sani and Sarani Zakaria

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071394 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2785

Abstract

Hybrid glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites have been used for decades in various engineering applications. However, it has a drawback with its application in marine/flood environments due to a lack of water resistance and frail mechanical stability. Floods have been considered one [...] Read more.

Hybrid glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites have been used for decades in various engineering applications. However, it has a drawback with its application in marine/flood environments due to a lack of water resistance and frail mechanical stability. Floods have been considered one of the most periodic hazards that could hit urban areas, due to climate change. The present paper aims to address this gap and to investigate the mechanical properties (tensile, compressive, and flexural strength) and water absorption capacity of hybrid GFRP composite comprising woven E-glass fabric and epoxy resin, various reinforcing materials (kenaf and coconut fibres), and various filler materials (fly ash, nano-silica, and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). The composites with 30 wt.% GFRP, 50 wt.% resin, 15 wt.% fly ash, 5 wt.% CaCO₃, 10 wt.% GFRP, 60 wt.% resin, and 30 wt.% fly ash showed the lowest water absorption property of 0.45%. The results revealed that the GFRP composite reinforced kenaf fibres with nano-silica, fly ash, and CaCO₃ improved the water absorption resistance. At the same time, GFRP reinforced the coconut fibres with fly ash, and kenaf fibres with CaCO₃ showed no favourable impact on water absorption. The identification of a hybrid GFRP composite with various reinforcing materials and fillers would assist future developments with a more compatible, enhanced, and reliable water-resistant composite, specifically for structural applications in flood-prone areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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13 pages, 2858 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Industrial Implementation of Aluminum Trihydrate-Fiber Composition for Fire Resistance and Mechanical Properties in Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Roofs

by Mohammad Zainudin, Kuncoro Diharjo, Mujtahid Kaavessina, Djoko Setyanto and Ubaidillah Ubaidillah

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071273 - 22 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2908

Abstract

It is difficult to obtain suitable fire resistance and mechanical properties for glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) roof material in industrial applications. Although some efforts to improve the fire resistance properties of GFRP have been carried out, in practice this sometimes degrades the mechanical properties. [...] Read more.

It is difficult to obtain suitable fire resistance and mechanical properties for glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) roof material in industrial applications. Although some efforts to improve the fire resistance properties of GFRP have been carried out, in practice this sometimes degrades the mechanical properties. Therefore, the base materials, such as filler and reinforcing fiber, must be appropriately combined to simultaneously improve both fire resistance and mechanical properties. The present study examines improvements in GFRP roof material by investigating the effect of aluminium trihydrate (ATH) as a filler and the combination of a chopped strand mat (CSM) with woven roving (WR) and stitched mat (STM) fibers as the reinforcement in a composite GFRP roof structure. The roof samples were prepared following industrial machine standards using the specified materials. The mechanical properties of GFRP were evaluated using tensile, flexural and impact tests, following ASTM D638, ASTM D790 and ASTM D256 standards, respectively. The fire properties were examined through fire tests following the ASTM D635 standard. The results show that the GFRP roof composed of CSM/WR fibers had a 40% higher tensile strength (103.5 MPa) compared with the GFRP roof without CSM fibers (73.8 MPa). The flexural strength of the GFRP roof with CSM/WR fibers was also 57% higher than the roof without fibers, with a ratio of 315.61 MPa to 201 MPa. With the use of CSM/WR fibers, the fire resistance also increased by 23%, resulting in a ratio of 4.31 mm/min to 5.32 mm/min. These results demonstrate that the combination of CSM/WR fibers as a reinforcement would be an excellent option for producing an improved GFRP roof with better industrial properties, especially when producing improved GFRP roofs using a continuous lamination machine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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9 pages, 5089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Micro–Macro Interlaminar Properties of Continuous Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polyphenylene Sulfide Laminates Made by Thermocompression to Simulate the Consolidation Process in FDM

by Jiale Hu, Suhail Mubarak, Kunrong Li, Xu Huang, Weidong Huang, Dongxian Zhuo, Yonggui Li, Lixin Wu and Jianlei Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(2), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020301 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2725

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing of continuous fiber-reinforced composites has been developed in recent decades as an alternative means to handle complex structures with excellent design flexibility and without mold forming. Although 3D printing has been increasingly used in the manufacturing industry, there is still [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing of continuous fiber-reinforced composites has been developed in recent decades as an alternative means to handle complex structures with excellent design flexibility and without mold forming. Although 3D printing has been increasingly used in the manufacturing industry, there is still room for the development of theories about how the process parameters affect microstructural properties to meet the mechanical requirements of the printed parts. In this paper, we investigated continuous carbon fiber-reinforced polyphenylene sulfide (CCF/PPS) as feedstock for fused deposition modeling (FDM) simulated by thermocompression. This study revealed that the samples manufactured using a layer-by-layer process have a high tensile strength up to 2041.29 MPa, which is improved by 68.8% compared with those prepared by the once-stacked method. Moreover, the mechanical–microstructure characterization relationships indicated that the compactness of the laminates is higher when the stacked CCF/PPS are separated, which can be explained based on both the void formation and the nanoindentation results. These reinforcements confirm the potential of remodeling the layer-up methods for the development of high-performance carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics. This study is of great significance to the improvement of the FDM process and opens broad prospects for the aerospace industry and continuous fiber-reinforced polymer matrix materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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17 pages, 3876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of a Thermal Recycling Process as an Alternative to Existing CFRP and GFRP Composite Wastes Management Options

by Sankar Karuppannan Gopalraj, Ivan Deviatkin, Mika Horttanainen and Timo Kärki

Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4430; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244430 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5195

Abstract

There are forecasts for the exponential increase in the generation of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite wastes containing valuable carbon and glass fibres. The recent adoption of these composites in wind turbines and aeroplanes has increased the amount [...] Read more.

There are forecasts for the exponential increase in the generation of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite wastes containing valuable carbon and glass fibres. The recent adoption of these composites in wind turbines and aeroplanes has increased the amount of end-of-life waste from these applications. By adequately closing the life cycle loop, these enormous volumes of waste can partly satisfy the global demand for their virgin counterparts. Therefore, there is a need to properly dispose these composite wastes, with material recovery being the final target, thanks to the strict EU regulations for promoting recycling and reusing as the highest priorities in waste disposal options. In addition, the hefty taxation has almost brought about an end to landfills. These government regulations towards properly recycling these composite wastes have changed the industries’ attitudes toward sustainable disposal approaches, and life cycle assessment (LCA) plays a vital role in this transition phase. This LCA study uses climate change results and fossil fuel consumptions to study the environmental impacts of a thermal recycling route to recycle and remanufacture CFRP and GFRP wastes into recycled rCFRP and rGFRP composites. Additionally, a comprehensive analysis was performed comparing with the traditional waste management options such as landfill, incineration with energy recovery and feedstock for cement kiln. Overall, the LCA results were favourable for CFRP wastes to be recycled using the thermal recycling route with lower environmental impacts. However, this contradicts GFRP wastes in which using them as feedstock in cement kiln production displayed more reduced environmental impacts than those thermally recycled to substitute virgin composite production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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6 pages, 990 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

On-Demand Photopolymerization of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers Exhibiting the Shape Memory Effect

by Xavier Allonas, Johann Pierrel, Ahmad Ibrahim and Céline Croutxé-Barghorn

Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4300; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244300 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1944

Abstract

Fiber-reinforced polymers exhibiting the shape memory effect were created on the basis of a one-pot three-step chemical process. The first step is a Michael addition, which creates linear polymer chains. The second step is free radical photopolymerization, which increases the degree of curing [...] Read more.

Fiber-reinforced polymers exhibiting the shape memory effect were created on the basis of a one-pot three-step chemical process. The first step is a Michael addition, which creates linear polymer chains. The second step is free radical photopolymerization, which increases the degree of curing of polymers. The last step is post-consolidation due to the reaction of previously formed secondary amines on the residual double bonds. By employing such chemistry to impregnate glass fibers, the final composite exhibits a convincing shape memory effect, as shown by cyclic thermomechanical tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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27 pages, 10813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of the Hybrid Carbon-Aramid Composite Materials Based on Mechanical Characterization by Digital Image Correlation Method

by Camelia Cerbu, Stefania Ursache, Marius Florin Botis and Anton Hadăr

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4184; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234184 - 29 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3583

Abstract

As hybrid carbon-aramid composites become widely used in various industries, it has become imperative to mechanically characterize them using accurate methods of measuring the entire deformation field such as the digital image correlation (DIC) method. The accuracy of the numerical simulation of carbon-aramid [...] Read more.

As hybrid carbon-aramid composites become widely used in various industries, it has become imperative to mechanically characterize them using accurate methods of measuring the entire deformation field such as the digital image correlation (DIC) method. The accuracy of the numerical simulation of carbon-aramid composite structures depends on the accuracy of the elastic constants. Therefore, the goal of this research is to model and simulate the mechanical behaviour of the composite based on epoxy resin reinforced with carbon-aramid woven fabric by considering the mechanical properties investigated by tensile test combined with DIC and the bending test. The curves of the transverse strains related to the longitudinal strains were investigated using DIC in order to determine the Poisson’s ratios in the case of tensile tests applied in warp or weft directions of the reinforcement fabric. The impact strength determined by Charpy tests is also reported. The other main objective is to use the analytical models to compute the tensile and flexural moduli of elasticity for the fictitious orthotropic materials which behave similarly to the carbon-aramid composite investigated. The simulations regarding the behaviour of the carbon-aramid composite in tensile and bending tests were validated by the experimental results, since the maximum errors recorded between experimental and theoretical results were 0.19% and 0.15% for the equivalent tensile modulus and for the equivalent flexural modulus, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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19 pages, 5198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Interlaminar Fracture Properties of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites with a Single Embedded Toughened Film

by Evanthia J. Pappa, James A. Quinn, James J. Murray, James R. Davidson, Conchúr M. Ó Brádaigh and Edward D. McCarthy

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4103; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234103 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2759

Abstract

In this study, two types of single polymer films have been inserted in a composite laminate to examine their toughening effects on mechanical properties. The first is a thermoplastic polyurethane (PU) film, and the second is an adhesive epoxy film featuring a polyester [...] Read more.

In this study, two types of single polymer films have been inserted in a composite laminate to examine their toughening effects on mechanical properties. The first is a thermoplastic polyurethane (PU) film, and the second is an adhesive epoxy film featuring a polyester net. The laminates were manufactured either using a co-curing (CC) process or a secondary bonding (SB) process used for the epoxy film. Mode I and mode II interlaminar fracture toughness were measured for laminates manufactured by both processes and compared with the corresponding reference laminate toughness. A significant increase in both mode I and mode II toughness resulted when introducing a single PU film, approximately 290% and 50%, respectively. Similarly, the epoxy film improved the interlaminar fracture properties; the CC process produced an increase of 175% for mode II toughness, while the SB adhesive film showed an increase of 75% for mode II toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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22 pages, 102480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Low-Velocity Impact of Carbon Fibre-Based Non-Crimp Fabric Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites

by Muhammad Ameerul Atrash Mohsin, Lorenzo Iannucci and Emile S. Greenhalgh

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3642; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213642 - 22 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4047

Abstract

There has been a lot of interest in understanding the low-velocity impact (LVI) response of thermoplastic composites. However, little research has focussed on studying the impact behaviour of non-crimp fabric (NCF)-based fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites. The purpose of this study was to evaluate [...] Read more.

There has been a lot of interest in understanding the low-velocity impact (LVI) response of thermoplastic composites. However, little research has focussed on studying the impact behaviour of non-crimp fabric (NCF)-based fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the LVI responses of two types of non-crimp fabric (NCF) carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic laminated composites that have been considered attractive in the automotive and aerospace industry: (i) T700/polyamide 6.6 (PA6.6) and (ii) T700/polyphenylene sulphide (PPS). Each carbon/thermoplastic type was impacted at three different energy levels (40, 100 and 160 J), which were determined to achieve three degrees of penetrability, i.e., no penetration, partial penetration and full penetration, respectively. Two distinct non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques ((i) ultrasonic C-scanning and (ii) X-ray tomography) were used to assess the extent of damage after impact. The laminated composite plates were subjected to an out-of-plane, localised impact using an INSTRON^® drop-weight tower with a hemispherical impactor measuring 16 mm in diameter. The time histories of force, deflection and velocity are reported and discussed. A nonlinear finite element model of the LVI phenomenon was developed using a finite element (FE) solver LS-DYNA^® and validated against the experimental observations. The extent of damage observed and level of impact energy absorption calculated on both the experiment and FE analysis are compared and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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11 pages, 5694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Jet Erosion Performance of Carbon Fiber and Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers

by Jesus Cornelio Mendoza Mendoza, Edgar Ernesto Vera Cardenas, Roger Lewis, William Mai, Erika Osiris Avila Davila, Armando Irvin Martínez Pérez, Saul Ledesma Ledesma and Marisa Moreno Rios

Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2933; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172933 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3363

Abstract

Complex engineering challenges are revealed in the wind industry; one of them is erosion at the leading edge of wind turbine blades. Water jet erosive wear tests on carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass-fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) were performed in order to determine [...] Read more.

Complex engineering challenges are revealed in the wind industry; one of them is erosion at the leading edge of wind turbine blades. Water jet erosive wear tests on carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass-fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) were performed in order to determine their resistance at the conditions tested. Vacuum Infusion Process (VIP) was used to obtain the composite materials. Eight layers of bidirectional carbon fabric (0/90°) and nine glass layers of bidirectional glass cloth were used to manufacture the plates. A water injection platform was utilized. The liquid was projected with a pressure of 150 bar on the surface of the specimens through a nozzle. The samples were located at 65 mm from the nozzle at an impact angle of 75°, with an exposure time of 10, 20 and 30 min. SEM and optical microscopy were used to observe the damage on surfaces. A 3D optical profilometer helped to determine the roughness and see the scar profiles. The results showed that the volume loss for glass fiber and carbon fiber were 10 and 19 mm³, respectively. This means that the resistance to water jet erosion in uncoated glass fiber was approximately two times lower than uncoated carbon fiber. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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21 pages, 10307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bionanocarbon Functional Material Characterisation and Enhancement Properties in Nonwoven Kenaf Fibre Nanocomposites

by Samsul Rizal, E. M. Mistar, A. A. Rahman, Abdul Khalil H.P.S., A. A. Oyekanmi, N. G. Olaiya, C. K. Abdullah and Tata Alfatah

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2303; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142303 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2600

Abstract

Bionanocarbon as a properties enhancement material in fibre reinforced nanobiocomposite was investigated for sustainable material applications. Currently, an extensive study using the micro size of biocarbon as filler or reinforcement materials has been done. However, poor fibre-matrix interface results in poor mechanical, physical, [...] Read more.

Bionanocarbon as a properties enhancement material in fibre reinforced nanobiocomposite was investigated for sustainable material applications. Currently, an extensive study using the micro size of biocarbon as filler or reinforcement materials has been done. However, poor fibre-matrix interface results in poor mechanical, physical, and thermal properties of the composite. Hence in this study, the nanoparticle of biocarbon was synthesised and applied as a functional material and properties enhancement in composite material. The bionanocarbon was prepared from an oil palm shell, an agriculture waste precursor, via a single-step activation technique. The nanocarbon filler loading was varied from 0, 1, 3, and 5% as nanoparticle properties enhancement in nonwoven kenaf fibre reinforcement in vinyl ester composite using resin transfer moulding technique. The functional properties were evaluated using TEM, particle size, zeta potential, and energy dispersion X-ray (EDX) elemental analysis. While the composite properties enhancement was evaluated using physical, mechanical, morphological, thermal, and wettability properties. The result indicated excellent nanofiller enhancement of fibre-matrix bonding that significantly improved the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the bionanocomposite. The SEM morphology study confirmed the uniform dispersion of the nanoparticle enhanced the fibre-matrix interaction. In this present work, the functional properties of bionanocarbon from oil palm shells (oil palm industrial waste) was incorporated in nanaobiocomposite, which significantly enhance its properties. The optimum enhancement of the bionanocomposite functional properties was obtained at 3% bionanocarbon loading. The improvement can be attributed to homogeneity and improved interfacial interaction between nanoparticles, kenaf fibre, and matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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20 pages, 12064 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Off-Axis Ply on Tensile Properties of [0/θ]_ns Thin Ply Laminates by Experiments and Numerical Method

by Junfeng Hu, Xi Deng, Xutong Zhang, Wen-Xue Wang and Terutake Matsubara

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111809 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2763

Abstract

The effect of off-axis ply on the tensile properties of unbalanced symmetric [0/θ]_ns laminates was explored through experimental and numerical analysis. Six CFRP [0/θ]_2s plies with different off-axis angles θ were fabricated for tensile tests. In situ observations of the damage [...] Read more.

The effect of off-axis ply on the tensile properties of unbalanced symmetric [0/θ]_ns laminates was explored through experimental and numerical analysis. Six CFRP [0/θ]_2s plies with different off-axis angles θ were fabricated for tensile tests. In situ observations of the damage to the laminates were conducted to investigate the initiation and progressive growth of the laminates during the tension tests. The fiber fractures, crack initiation, and progressive propagation were analyzed by observing the free edge of the laminates, and the difference in damage behavior caused by different off-axis angles was investigated. All the six [0/θ]_2s plies with off-axis angles θ ranging from 15° to 90° showed approximate linear stress–strain responses in the tensile tests. Matrix cracks were not observed prior to the final catastrophic failure in the off-axis layers of the [0/θ]_2s laminates with a θ in the range of 15–60°. Finite element analysis (FEA) of the [0/θ]_s plies was conducted using a 3D micromechanical model, in which matrix cracking and fiber-matrix debonding in the off-axis layer were simulated using a cohesive interface element. Three micromechanical crack-free, cohesive interface, and initial crack models were analyzed to predict the influence of the matrix cracks inside the off-axis layer on the damage behavior of the [0/θ]_s laminates. The numerical results from the initial crack micromechanical model show a lower bound of the tensile strength of the [0/θ]_s plies. A high stress concentration is observed adjacent to the cracked off-axis layer, inducing a tensile strength loss of about 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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14 pages, 3378 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Creep and Recovery Behavior of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced 3DP Composites

by Ans Al Rashid and Muammer Koҫ

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1644; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101644 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4585

Abstract

The commercial availability of 3D printers for continuous fiber-reinforced 3D-printed (CFR3DP) composites has attracted researchers to evaluate the thermomechanical properties of these materials. The improvement of strength through chopped or continuous fiber reinforcements in polymers could provide remarkable results, and its exploration can [...] Read more.

The commercial availability of 3D printers for continuous fiber-reinforced 3D-printed (CFR3DP) composites has attracted researchers to evaluate the thermomechanical properties of these materials. The improvement of strength through chopped or continuous fiber reinforcements in polymers could provide remarkable results, and its exploration can provide broad applications in several industries. The evaluation of mechanical properties of these materials at elevated temperatures is vital for their utilization in severe operating conditions. This study provides insight into the effect of different fiber reinforcements (Kevlar, fiberglass, and high-strength high-temperature fiberglass) and temperatures on the creep and recovery behavior of CFR3DP Onyx composites. Experimental results were also compared with analytical models, i.e., Burger’s model and Weibull distribution function, for creep and recovery. Results from analytical models agreed well with experimental results for all the materials and temperatures. A significant drop in maximum and residual strains was observed due to the introduction of fibers. However, the creep resistance of all the materials was affected at higher temperatures. Minimum creep strain was observed for Onyx-FG at 120 °C; however, at the same temperature, the minimum residual strain was observed for Onyx-KF. Based on the analytical models and experimental results, the role of fiber reinforcements on the improvement of creep and recovery performance is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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14 pages, 3407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Chemical Analysis of Low-Density Polyethylene Crystallized on Carbon and Clay Nanofillers

by Dilip Depan, William Chirdon and Ahmed Khattab

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101558 - 13 May 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4062

Abstract

Interest in carbon and clay-based nanofillers has grown in recent years. The crystallization behavior of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was studied using a variety of notable nanofillers used in engineering applications and prepared using a solution crystallization method. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene oxide nano-platelets, [...] Read more.

Interest in carbon and clay-based nanofillers has grown in recent years. The crystallization behavior of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was studied using a variety of notable nanofillers used in engineering applications and prepared using a solution crystallization method. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene oxide nano-platelets, clay (montmorillonite), and modified clay (surface-modified with trimethyl stearyl ammonium) were used to induce heterogeneous crystallization of LDPE. The crystallized LDPE samples, imaged using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, revealed different microstructures for each nanohybrid system, indicating these various nanofillers induce LDPE lamellae ordering. The underlying interactions between polymer and nanofiller were investigated using FTIR spectroscopy. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine crystallinity. This work examines how the differences in morphology and chemical structure of the nanofillers induce changes in the nucleation and growth of polymer crystals. These results will provide guidance on functional design of nano-devices with controlled properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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15 pages, 6276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Orientation and Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of a 20 Years Old Wind Turbine Blade GFR Composite

by Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Bandar Alzahrani, Nabil Jouini, Mahmoud M. Hessien and Sabbah Ataya

Polymers 2021, 13(7), 1144; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071144 - 2 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2850

Abstract

This work evaluates the mechanical properties of the glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) material taken from an out of service 100 KW power wind turbine blade which has been in service life of 20 years old. Investigated samples were taken from two positions [...] Read more.

This work evaluates the mechanical properties of the glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) material taken from an out of service 100 KW power wind turbine blade which has been in service life of 20 years old. Investigated samples were taken from two positions of undamaged regions at 1.6 m and 5.4 m from the rotor hub, respectively. Microstructure investigation and lay-up analysis were carried out. Fiber weight fraction of the investigated samples was ranging between 0.55–0.60. Tensile and compression tests were carried out at the temperature range from −10 °C to +50 °C on specimens which were machined so as to be loaded in the blade length direction LD, transverse to the blade length TD and off axis; 45° to the blade length. Tensile elastic modulus of the investigated GFRP was determined in the three direction tested. The number of fiber fabric layers found to be decreasing along the blade length away from the root and the density of the fibers along the length is the highest (858 gm/mm²) and in the transverse direction is the lowest (83 gm/mm²). The microstructure of the GFRP composite showed good wetting for the fiber by the polymer with some features of lack of penetration at the high density fiber bundles and some production porosity in the matrix. The tensile Properties at room temperature (RT) and high temperature are almost similar with the highest properties for the samples aligned with the blade length. The compressive strength is highest at the transverse direction samples and lowest at the blade length direction and decreasing with the increase of the test temperature. The bending properties are significantly affected by the fiber orientation with the highest properties for samples aligned with the blade length and the lowest for the samples with the transverse direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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Review

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15 pages, 2727 KiB

Open AccessReview

Properties of 3D-Printed Polymer Fiber-Reinforced Mortars: A Review

by Jie Liu and Chun Lv

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071315 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4594

Abstract

The engineering applications and related research of fiber-reinforced cement and geopolymer mortar composites are becoming more and more extensive. These reinforced fibers include not only traditional steel fibers and carbon fibers, but also synthetic polymer fibers and natural polymer fibers. Polymer fiber has [...] Read more.

The engineering applications and related research of fiber-reinforced cement and geopolymer mortar composites are becoming more and more extensive. These reinforced fibers include not only traditional steel fibers and carbon fibers, but also synthetic polymer fibers and natural polymer fibers. Polymer fiber has good mechanical properties, good bonding performance with cement and geopolymer mortars, and excellent performance of cracking resistance and reinforcement. In this paper, representative organic synthetic polymer fibers, such as polypropylene, polyethylene and polyvinyl alcohol, are selected to explore their effects on the flow properties, thixotropic properties and printing time interval of fresh 3D-printed cement and geopolymer mortars. At the same time, the influence of mechanical properties, such as the compressive strength, flexural strength and interlaminar bonding strength of 3D-printed cement and geopolymer mortars after hardening, is also analyzed. Finally, the effect of polymer fiber on the anisotropy of 3D-printed mortars is summarized briefly. The existing problems of 3D-printed cement and polymer mortars are summarized, and the development trend of polymer fiber reinforced 3D-printed mortars is prospected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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28 pages, 5148 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Properties and Application of Bio-Based Poly(Butylene Succinate)

by S. Ayu Rafiqah, Abdan Khalina, Ahmad Saffian Harmaen, Intan Amin Tawakkal, Khairul Zaman, M. Asim, M.N. Nurrazi and Ching Hao Lee

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1436; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091436 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 237 | Viewed by 14776

Abstract

Researchers and companies have increasingly been drawn to biodegradable polymers and composites because of their environmental resilience, eco-friendliness, and suitability for a range of applications. For various uses, biodegradable fabrics use biodegradable polymers or natural fibers as reinforcement. Many approaches have been taken [...] Read more.

Researchers and companies have increasingly been drawn to biodegradable polymers and composites because of their environmental resilience, eco-friendliness, and suitability for a range of applications. For various uses, biodegradable fabrics use biodegradable polymers or natural fibers as reinforcement. Many approaches have been taken to achieve better compatibility for tailored and improved material properties. In this article, PBS (polybutylene succinate) was chosen as the main topic due to its excellent properties and intensive interest among industrial and researchers. PBS is an environmentally safe biopolymer that has some special properties, such as good clarity and processability, a shiny look, and flexibility, but it also has some drawbacks, such as brittleness. PBS-based natural fiber composites are completely biodegradable and have strong physical properties. Several research studies on PBS-based composites have been published, including physical, mechanical, and thermal assessments of the properties and its ability to replace petroleum-based materials, but no systematic analysis of up-to-date research evidence is currently available in the literature. The aim of this analysis is to highlight recent developments in PBS research and production, as well as its natural fiber composites. The current research efforts focus on the synthesis, copolymers and biodegradability for its properties, trends, challenges and prospects in the field of PBS and its composites also reviewed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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18 pages, 2496 KiB

Open AccessReview

Potential for Natural Fiber Reinforcement in PLA Polymer Filaments for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Additive Manufacturing: A Review

by Ching Hao Lee, Farah Nadia Binti Mohammad Padzil, Seng Hua Lee, Zuriyati Mohamed Asa’ari Ainun and Luqman Chuah Abdullah

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1407; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091407 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 8212

Abstract

In this review, the potential of natural fiber and kenaf fiber (KF) reinforced PLA composite filament for fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing technology is highlighted. Additive manufacturing is a material-processing method in which the addition of materials layer by layer creates a three-dimensional [...] Read more.

In this review, the potential of natural fiber and kenaf fiber (KF) reinforced PLA composite filament for fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing technology is highlighted. Additive manufacturing is a material-processing method in which the addition of materials layer by layer creates a three-dimensional object. Unfortunately, it still cannot compete with conventional manufacturing processes, and instead serves as an economically effective tool for small-batch or high-variety product production. Being preformed of composite filaments makes it easiest to print using an FDM 3D printer without or with minimum alteration to the hardware parts. On the other hand, natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite filaments have gained great attention in the market. However, uneven printing, clogging, and the inhomogeneous distribution of the fiber-matrix remain the main challenges. At the same time, kenaf fibers are one of the most popular reinforcements in polymer composites. Although they have a good record on strength reinforcement, with low cost and light weight, kenaf fiber reinforcement PLA filament is still seldom seen in previous studies. Therefore, this review serves to promote kenaf fiber in PLA composite filaments for FDM 3D printing. To promote the use of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in AM, eight challenges must be solved and carried out. Moreover, some concerns arise to achieve long-term sustainability and market acceptability of KF/PLA composite filaments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite)

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