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Processes
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Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition)
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Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition)

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Pharmaceutical Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 March 2026 | Viewed by 3849

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Paolo Trucillo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
The Sustainable Technologies for Pollution Control Laboratory (STPC Laboratory), Department of Chemical, Material and Industrial Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale V. Tecchio, 80125 Napoli, Italy
Interests: drug delivery systems; foams; material science; pharmaceutical material science
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Drug carriers are special tools used for the transportation and preservation of molecules for several pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutraceutical applications. The main advantage of carriers is their ability to incorporate drugs, enhancing the bioavailability and selectivity of drugs and reducing their side effects on humans.

Drug carriers can be classified according to their nature, shape and production materials. Nanoparticles are spherical objects that are generally employed in pharmaceutical applications, such as gene therapy, the delivery of proteins, dietary supplements, vitamin, antibiotics and vaccines. Nanotubes are hollow cylinders of carbon that are used to treat carcinogenic cells or tissues. Dendrimers are more complex arrays of carriers, with a branched shape used for the simultaneous and efficient transportation of drugs. Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of an inner aqueous core surrounded by a double layer of phospholipids, and are particularly useful since they are biocompatible with human cells. Polymersomes are spherical vesicles with a polymer coating, which guarantees controlled and delayed drug release. Furthermore, niosomes are spherical vesicles composed of nonionic surfactant active agents. These are only some examples of the carriers utilized in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutraceutical applications, but all of them require attention from the scientific community.

Drug delivery can be performed via several routes of administration, namely active or passive. In this Special Issue, we welcome original research papers or reviews that address the following drug delivery routes: ocular, oral, transdermal, nasal, pulmonary, vaginal and urinary, subcutaneous and delivery via patches and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).

Several processes have been proposed for the production of drug carriers in order to improve their properties, such as their nanometric dimensions, encapsulation efficiency, solvent residue, sterility and stability. Therefore, the main properties and characteristics of carriers may vary significantly, depending on the production processes employed. In this Special Issue, we welcome the presentation of novel methodologies for the production of drug carriers, as well as novel findings regarding the mechnisms of the problem. Moreover, innovations in the products provided by conventional methods and in the processes employed should be considered. Finally, this Special Issue aims to provide an economic analysis of the processes of productive plants, as well as the environmental impact of these processes.

Dr. Paolo Trucillo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • nanoparticles
  • nanocapsules
  • nanospheres
  • liposomes
  • foams
  • carbon nanotubes
  • dendrimers
  • cubosomes
  • niosomes
  • hydrogels
  • conventional processes
  • drug delivery systems
  • modeling of drug delivery
  • high-pressure systems
  • supercritical processes
  • economic analysis
  • environmental impact of processes

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

28 pages, 4258 KB  
Article
Development and Validation of a Simultaneous HPLC Stability-Indicating Method for Atorvastatin and Apigenin in a Novel SMEDDS Formulation Using Quality by Design (QbD) Approach
by Sarmad Abdulabbas Kashmar, Reem Abou Assi, Muqdad Alhijjaj and Siok Yee Chan
Processes 2025, 13(9), 2933; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092933 - 14 Sep 2025
Viewed by 480
Abstract
Atorvastatin (ATV), a widely used statin, exhibits both cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. Apigenin (API), a natural flavonoid, also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory activity. This study aimed to develop and validate a novel stability-indicating reverse-phase HPLC method for the simultaneous quantification of ATV and API [...] Read more.
Atorvastatin (ATV), a widely used statin, exhibits both cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. Apigenin (API), a natural flavonoid, also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory activity. This study aimed to develop and validate a novel stability-indicating reverse-phase HPLC method for the simultaneous quantification of ATV and API in standard solutions and dual ATV–API-loaded self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS). Quality by Design (QbD) approach was used to define the quality target product profile (QTPP), critical quality attributes (CQAs), and identify critical method parameters (CMPs) through risk assessment. A central composite design (CCD) evaluated the effects of organic phase ratio, buffer pH, and flow rate on chromatographic responses, including retention time, tailing factor, and resolution. Separation was achieved using an Agilent Eclipse XDB C-18 column (5 µm, 4.6 × 150 min) with a mobile phase of acetonitrile and 0.1 M ammonium acetate buffer (pH 7.0) in a 40:60 (v/v) ratio, UV detection at 266 nm, and a flow rate of 0.4 mL/ min. The method met ICH and USP (2021) validation criteria, showing excellent linearity (0.1–10 µg/mL), precision, accuracy, and specificity. No interference from SMEDDS excipients or degradation products during stability studies was observed. This validated method offers a reliable tool for formulation development and routine analysis of ATV and API combinations Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition))
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19 pages, 1976 KB  
Article
Eudragit® S 100 Coating of Lipid Nanoparticles for Oral Delivery of RNA
by Md. Anamul Haque, Archana Shrestha and George Mattheolabakis
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2477; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082477 - 5 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1142
Abstract
Lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based delivery systems are promising tools for advancing RNA-based therapies. However, there are underlying challenges for the oral delivery of LNPs. In this study, we optimized an LNP formulation, which we encapsulated in a pH-sensitive Eudragit® S 100 (Eu) coating. [...] Read more.
Lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based delivery systems are promising tools for advancing RNA-based therapies. However, there are underlying challenges for the oral delivery of LNPs. In this study, we optimized an LNP formulation, which we encapsulated in a pH-sensitive Eudragit® S 100 (Eu) coating. LNPs were prepared using the DLin-MC3-DMA ionizable lipid, cholesterol, DMG-PEG, and DSPC at a molar ratio of 50:38.5:10:1.5. LNPs were coated with 1% Eu solution via nanoprecipitation using 0.25% acetic acid to get Eu-coated LNPs (Eu-LNPs). Particle characteristics of LNPs were determined by using dynamic light scattering (DLS). Ribogreen and agarose gel retardation assays were used to evaluate nucleic acid entrapment and stability. LNPs and Eu-LNPs were ~120 nm and 4.5 μm in size, respectively. Eu-LNPs decrease to an average size of ~191 ± 22.9 nm at a pH of 8. Phosphate buffer (PB)-treated and untreated Eu-LNPs and uncoated LNPs were transfected in HEK-293 cells. PB-treated Eu-LNPs showed significant transfection capability compared to their non-PB-treated counterparts. Eu-LNPs protected their nucleic acid payloads in the presence of a simulated gastric fluid (SGF) with pepsin and maintained transfection capacity following SGF or simulated intestinal fluid. Hence, Eu coating is a potentially promising approach for the oral administration of LNPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition))
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17 pages, 2033 KB  
Article
Unraveling the Degradation Kinetics of Genipin-Cross-Linked Chitosan Hydrogels via Symbolic Regression
by Belmiro P. M. Duarte and Maria J. Moura
Processes 2025, 13(7), 1981; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13071981 - 23 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 713
Abstract
Chitosan hydrogels have gained attention in biomedical and pharmaceutical research due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and tunable properties. To enhance mechanical strength and to control swelling and degradation, chitosan is often cross-linked with either bio-based (e.g., genipin) or synthetic (e.g., glutaraldehyde) agents. A [...] Read more.
Chitosan hydrogels have gained attention in biomedical and pharmaceutical research due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and tunable properties. To enhance mechanical strength and to control swelling and degradation, chitosan is often cross-linked with either bio-based (e.g., genipin) or synthetic (e.g., glutaraldehyde) agents. A comprehensive understanding of the degradation mechanisms of cross-linked chitosan hydrogels is essential, as it directly impacts performance optimization, regulatory compliance, and their integration into personalized medicine. Despite extensive studies, the fundamental mechanisms governing hydrogel degradation remain partially understood. In this work, we introduce a general data-driven framework based on symbolic regression to elucidate the degradation kinetics of hydrogels. Using genipin-cross-linked chitosan hydrogels as a model system, we analyze experimental degradation data to identify governing kinetic laws. Our results suggest that degradation proceeds primarily via a surface-mediated mechanism. The proposed approach provides a robust and interpretable method for uncovering mechanistic insights and is broadly applicable to other hydrogel systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition))
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18 pages, 4317 KB  
Article
Cytotoxic and Antibiofilm Properties of Antibiotic-Loaded Thermoresponsive Hydrogels for Root Canal Therapy
by Cristiane Duque, Gabriela Pacheco de Almeida Braga, Juliana Machado de Carvalho, Karina Sampaio Caiaffa, Gabriel Pereira Nunes, Rafaela Laruzo Rabelo, Vanessa Rodrigues dos Santos, Geórgia Rondó Peres, Lucas da Silva Ribeiro and Emerson Rodrigues de Camargo
Processes 2025, 13(3), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030661 - 26 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1087
Abstract
Dental infections can disrupt root development in immature permanent teeth, making traditional endodontic treatment challenging. Apexogenesis, a regenerative approach that promotes natural root development, offers a potential solution. However, issues related to disinfection and material biocompatibility still remain. The objective of this study [...] Read more.
Dental infections can disrupt root development in immature permanent teeth, making traditional endodontic treatment challenging. Apexogenesis, a regenerative approach that promotes natural root development, offers a potential solution. However, issues related to disinfection and material biocompatibility still remain. The objective of this study was to evaluate the synergistic antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties of double and triple antibiotic combinations against common oral pathogens, and to incorporate the most effective combination into a thermosensitive hydrogel, to develop an alternative intracanal medication. Antibiotics were tested alone and in combination in planktonic and biofilm conditions of oral bacteria and Candida albicans. The antibiotic combinations with potential antimicrobial synergy were tested on Enterococcus faecalis biofilms in radicular dentin by confocal microscopy. Metronidazole (ME), ciprofloxacin (CI), and fosfomycin (FO) were incorporated into poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL) hydrogels, and their antibiofilm activity was compared to PNVCL hydrogels containing chlorhexidine (CHX) or calcium hydroxide (CH). The cytotoxicity of the hydrogels was assessed on MDPC-23 odontoblast-like cells using metiltetrazolium assays. A statistical analysis was performed using ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test (p < 0.05). The combination of ME + CI + FO showed superior antibiofilm effects in mono- and dual-species biofilms and on biofilms inside dentinal tubules, comparable to CHX. PNVCL hydrogels with ME + CI + FO significantly reduced E. faecalis biofilms in dentinal tubules, exhibiting a higher efficacy than PNVCL + CH. Cytotoxicity tests revealed minimal effects on cell viability for both PNVCL hydrogels with and without antibiotics. In conclusion, ME + CI + FO showed potent antimicrobial synergy and, when loaded in thermosensitive PNVCL hydrogel, demonstrated significant antibiofilm activity and low cytotoxicity. These findings emphasize the potential of this formulation as an effective and biocompatible endodontic medication, especially for the treatment of immature permanent teeth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition))
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