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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Engineering Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 33931

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Dr. Mieczysław Bakuła

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Guest Editor

Institute of Navigation, Polish Air Force University, 08-521 Dęblin, Poland
Interests: GNSS surveying; GNSS navigation; SBAS; measurement; estimation; advanced statistical analysis; mapping; earth observation; Kalman filtering
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Dr. Krzysztof Naus

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Guest Editor

Department of Navigation, Polish Naval Academy, 81-127 Gdynia, Poland
Interests: marine navigation; shipping; ship design; ECDIS; land navigation; measurement; DTM; maritime; topography; geomatics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Satellite navigation is an extremely important subject of many studies worldwide. Users of satellite navigation are familiar with global and regional navigation satellite systems such as GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo, QZSS, and IRNSS/NavIC, as well as satellite local augmentation systems, such as WAAS (USA), EGNOS (Europe), SDCM (Russia), MSAS (Japan), GAGAN (India), BDSBAS (China), KASS (South Korea), A-SBAS (Africa and Indian Ocean), and SPAN (Australia and New Zealand). All providers have offered the use of their systems to the international community. Satellite signals contain data that a GNSS receiver uses to compute the locations needed for accurate satellite navigation. Plenty of research has been carried out to achieve accurate satellite positioning, but more is still needed. In this Special Issue of Remote Sensing, we will collect a wide range of articles covering many aspects of satellite navigation and signal processing, theoretical studies, and practical applications.

Dr. Mieczysław Bakuła
Dr. Krzysztof Naus
Guest Editors

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Keywords

GNSS systems
SBAS systems
Aircraft/UAV navigation systems
marine navigation systems
land navigation systems
Multi-GNSS integrated navigation systems
GNSS algorithms
GNSS signal processing
Multi-GNSS applications
real-time kinematic
smartphone GNSS surveying and navigation

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Related Special Issue

Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing (Second Edition) in Remote Sensing (4 articles)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 8741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Relative Field Antenna Calibration Method Designed for Low-Cost GNSS Antennas by Exploiting Triple-Differenced Measurements

by Wenxin Jin, Wenfei Gong, Tianwei Hou, Xin Sun and Hao Ma

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(15), 3917; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15153917 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1614

Abstract

Performing the high-precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) applications with low-cost antennas is an up-and-coming research field. However, the antenna-induced phase biases, i.e., phase center corrections (PCCs), of the low-cost antennas can be up to centimeters and need to be calibrated in advance. The relative field antenna calibration method is easy to conduct, but the classical procedure entails integer ambiguity resolution, which may face the problem of low success rate under the centimeter-level PCCs. In this contribution, we designed a relative field calibration method suitable for the low-cost GNSS antennas. The triple-differencing operations were utilized to eliminate the carrier-phase ambiguities and then construct PCC measurements; the time-differencing interval was set to a relatively long time span, such as one hour, and the reference satellite was selected according to the angular distance it passed over during a time-differencing interval. To reduce the effect of significant triple-differencing noise, a weight setting method based on the area of a spherical quadrilateral was proposed for the spherical harmonics fitting process. The duration of the data collection with respect to GPS and BDS was discussed. The performance of the proposed method was assessed with real GPS and BDS observations and a variety of simulated phase patterns, showing that calibration results could be obtained with millimeter-level accuracy. The impact of cycle slip and elevation mask angle on the calibration results was also analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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25 pages, 9342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A GNSS Spoofing Detection and Direction-Finding Method Based on Low-Cost Commercial Board Components

by Pengrui Mao, Hong Yuan, Xiao Chen, Yingkui Gong, Shuhui Li, Ran Li, Ruidan Luo, Guangyao Zhao, Chengang Fu and Jiajia Xu

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(11), 2781; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15112781 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3425

Abstract

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is vulnerable to deliberate spoofing signal attacks. Once the user wrongly locks on the spoofing signal, the wrong position, velocity, and time (PVT) information will be calculated, which will harm the user. GNSS spoofing signals are difficult to carry out spoofing attacks in the direction of arrival (DOA) of the real signal, so the spoofing detection method based on DOA is very effective. On the basis of identifying spoofing signals, accurate DOA information of the signal can be further used to locate the spoofer. At present, the existing DOA monitoring methods for spoofing signals are mainly based on dedicated antenna arrays and receivers, which are costly and difficult to upgrade and are not conducive to large-scale deployment, upgrade, and maintenance. This paper proposes a spoofing detection and direction-finding method based on a low-cost commercial GNSS board component (including an antenna). Based on the traditional principle of using a multi-antenna carrier phase to solve DOA, this paper innovatively solves the following problems: the poor direction-finding accuracy caused by the unstable phase center of low-cost commercial antennas, the low success rate of spoofing detection in a multipath environment, and the inconsistent sampling time among multiple low-cost commercial GNSS boards. Moreover, the corresponding prototype equipment for spoofing detection and direction-finding is developed. The measured results show that it can effectively detect spoofing signals in open environments. Under a certain false alarm rate, the detection success rate can reach 100%, and the typical direction-finding accuracy can reach

5 °

. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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25 pages, 5623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Autonomous Global Star Identification Algorithm Based on the Fast MST Index and Robust Multi-Order CCA Pattern

by Zijian Zhu, Yuebo Ma, Bingbing Dan, Enhai Liu, Zifa Zhu, Jinhui Yi, Yuping Tang and Rujin Zhao

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(9), 2251; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092251 - 24 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1865

Abstract

Star identification plays a key role in spacecraft attitude measurement. Currently, most star identification algorithms tend to perform well only in a scene without noise and are highly sensitive to noise. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a star identification algorithm based on the maximum spanning tree (MST) index and multi-order continuous cycle angle (CCA) intended for the lost-in-space mode. In addition, a neighboring star selection method named dynamic eight-quadrant (DEQ) is developed. First, the DEQ method is used to select high-confidence neighboring stars for the main star. Then, the star image is regarded as a graph, and the Prim algorithm is employed to construct the MST pattern for each guide star, which is then combined with the K vector index to perform the main star candidate search. Finally, the Jackard similarity voting for the multi-order CCA of the main star is used to identify the main star, and the global neighboring star identification is conducted by the multi-order CCA of neighboring stars. The simulated and real star images test results show that compared with five mainstream algorithms, when the position noise is 1 pixel, the number of false stars is five, the magnitude noise is 0.5, and the identification accuracy of the proposed algorithm is higher than 98.5%. Therefore, the proposed algorithm has excellent anti-noise ability in comparison to other algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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25 pages, 1312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multipath Mitigation for BOC Signals Based on Prompt-Assisted-Offset Correlator

by Zhenyu Tian, Xiaowei Cui and Mingquan Lu

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(4), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15040937 - 8 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1938

Abstract

Tracking ambiguity and multipath are two serious threats in processing binary offset carrier (BOC) signals that are widely used in global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Three-loop tracking methods, such as dual binary phase-shift keying tracking (DBT), use a delay lock loop (DLL), a phase lock loop (PLL), and a subcarrier PLL (SPLL) to track the code, carrier, and subcarrier, respectively, thus solving the tracking ambiguity problem. However, the multipath remains an important factor in the ranging performance deterioration of these tracking methods. Using the offset correlator (OC) technique in the SPLL can effectively mitigate subcarrier multipath errors, but it substantially raises thermal noise errors. To solve this contradiction, this paper proposes a prompt-assisted-offset correlator (PAOC) technique that combines the prompt and offset correlators in a complementary way to mitigate multipath for BOC signals. Compared with the original OC technique, the PAOC technique has less thermal noise performance loss. Moreover, this paper discovers and quantifies the interaction between carrier and subcarrier multipath errors by analyzing the coupling effect between SPLL and PLL. Most multipath mitigation methods for BOC signals ignore the carrier multipath in the PLL, so their subcarrier multipath performance is not optimal. Thus, this paper further proposes applying the PAOC technique in both PLL and SPLL to mitigate carrier and subcarrier multipath errors simultaneously. Theoretical analysis and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can significantly improve the multipath performance with small noise performance loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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27 pages, 13307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spoofing Traction Strategy Based on the Generation of Traction Code

by Ning Ji, Yongnan Rao, Xue Wang, Decai Zou, Xiaofei Chen and Yao Guo

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(2), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15020500 - 14 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1256

Abstract

Traction spoofing is an important component of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) intermediate attacks, and the traction scheme directly determines the concealment of spoofing. However, spoofing via conventional traction strategies can be easily detected using Time of Arrival (TOA) and power detection. Based on a BPSK-modulated signal, a novel traction strategy using traction code is proposed to suppress part of the authentication signal and form an ideal correlation peak. This strategy was modeled and simulated to verify its theoretical feasibility. Effective spoofing data were generated based on the signal generation software to verify the spoofing effect with the reception of the software receiver. It can be inferred that no significant distortion occurred throughout the traction process, and the value range of the traction speed was expanded. The received results in different scenarios demonstrated that the observations’ Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) percentage change in the proposed strategy is significantly better than those of conventional strategies. A Ratio Test was also performed, verifying that the strategy can bypass Signal Quality Monitoring (SQM) detection. Meanwhile, the proposed strategy remained effective when the

C / N_{0}

increased to 60 dBHz. In summary, the proposed strategy exhibits destructiveness, concealment, and adaptability on the battlefield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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17 pages, 2623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Availability of Automatic Identification System (AIS) Based on Spectral Analysis of Mean Time to Repair (MTTR) Determined from Dynamic Data Age

by Krzysztof Jaskólski

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(15), 3692; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153692 - 2 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1966

Abstract

Good marine practice and proper operation of navigation, radio navigation, and radio communication systems are nowadays of key importance for marine navigation safety. This applies to merchant vessels and navy ships and effectively monitoring unmanned vehicles along a set route. Technological progress has contributed to developing equipment for ships and unmanned vehicles, which are fitted out with devices of the automatic identification system (AIS). One of the issues in AIS operation is limited-service availability, which manifests itself in the presence of incomplete data for the navigation parameters sent by radio, compressed in dynamic data messages. This results in the unusability of the system information for ships equipped with an AIS transponder. This paper aims to develop an AIS service availability model based on the mean time of incomplete navigation parameter occurrence in AIS data messages and to present the test results in the time and frequency domain using a mathematical method—Fast Fourier Transform. The study results refer to five basic navigation parameters and are indicative of a high service availability index—over 0.99 for three out of the five navigation parameters tested. Data recorded by a ship’s system receiver were the key source of practical knowledge concerning the limitations of AIS service availability. The experiment revealed interruptions in regular data inflow from navigation devices. In effect, a description was provided of a functional relationship based on a spectral analysis of the frequencies of the times occurring between service repair (time to repair—TTR), and the use of the model to analyze other variables was proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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28 pages, 9836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinematic Galileo and GPS Performances in Aerial, Terrestrial, and Maritime Environments

by Luisa Bastos, Peter Buist, Raffaela Cefalo, Jose Alberto Goncalves, Antonia Ivan, Americo Magalhaes, Alexandru Pandele, Marco Porretta, Alina Radutu, Tatiana Sluga and Paolo Snider

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3414; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143414 - 16 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2633

Abstract

On 15 December 2016, the European Commission (EC) declared the provision of the Galileo Initial Services (IS). This marked a historical milestone in the Galileo program, towards the reaching of its Full Operational Capability. This allows users to navigate with performance-accuracy levels either matching or exceeding those obtained with other GNSS. Under the delegation of the EC, the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA) has assumed the role of the Galileo Service Provider. As part of this service provision, the primary mission of the Galileo Reference Centre (GRC) is to provide the EUSPA and the EC with independent means for monitoring and evaluating the performance of the Galileo services, the quality of the signals in space, and the performance of other GNSS. This mission includes significant contributions from cooperating entities in the European Union (EU) Member States (MS), Norway and Switzerland. In particular, for a detailed assessment of the Galileo performance, these contributions include (but are not limited to) periodic dynamic campaigns in three different environments (aerial, terrestrial, and maritime). These campaigns were executed in the frame of the GRC-MS Project and use multi-constellation receivers to compare the navigation performance obtained with different GNSS. The objective of this paper is to present the numerical results obtained from these campaigns, together with several considerations about the experimental setup, the methodology for the estimation of the reference («actual») trajectory, and the reasons for possible performance degradations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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20 pages, 7915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Receiver EGNOS+SDCM Positioning with C1C and C1W Pseudo-Range Measurements

by Mieczysław Bakuła, Kamil Krasuski and Karol Dawidowicz

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(13), 3152; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14133152 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1764

Abstract

The paper presents an approach to the simultaneous use of SDCM and EGNOS corrections for two GNSS receivers placed at a constant distance. The SDCM and EGNOS corrections were applied for two GPS code measurements on L1 frequency: C1C and C1W. The approach is based mainly on the constrained least squares adjustment, but for the horizontal and vertical coordinates, the Kalman Filter was applied in order to reduce pseudo-range noises. It allows for obtaining a higher autonomous accuracy of GPS/(SDCM+EGNOS) positioning than when using only the GPS/EGNOS or GPS/SDCM system. The final dual-redundant solution, in which two SBAS systems were used (EGNOS+SDCM) and two GPS pseudo-ranges (C1C+C1W) were present, yielded RMS errors of 0.11 m for the horizontal coordinates and 0.25 m for the vertical coordinates. Moreover, the accuracy analysis in the developed mathematical model for the determined 3D coordinates with simultaneous use of EGNOS and SDCM systems proved to be much more reliable than using only a single EGNOS or SDCM system. The presented approach can be used not only for precise navigation, but also for some geoscience applications and remote sensing where the reliable accuracy of autonomous GPS positioning is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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24 pages, 3985 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey of GNSS Spoofing and Anti-Spoofing Technology

by Lianxiao Meng, Lin Yang, Wu Yang and Long Zhang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4826; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194826 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8487

Abstract

With the development of satellite navigation technology, the research focus of GNSS has shifted from improving positioning accuracy to expanding system application and improving system performance. At the same time, improving the survivability of satellite navigation systems has become a research hotspot in the field of navigation, especially with regard to anti-spoofing. This paper first briefly analyzes the common interference types of satellite navigation and then focuses on spoofing. We analyze the characteristics and technical mechanism of satellite navigation and the positioning signal. Spoofing modes are classified and introduced separately according to signal generation, implementation stage and deployment strategy. After an introduction of GNSS spoofing technology, we summarize the research progress of GNSS anti-spoofing technology over the last decade. For anti-spoofing technology, we propose a new classification standard and analyze and compare the implementation difficulty, effect and adaptability of the current main spoofing detection technologies. Finally, we summarize with considerations, prospective challenges and development trends of GNSS spoofing and anti-spoofing technology in order to provide a reference for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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15 pages, 4669 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Accuracy Assessment of the Positioning of a Swarm of Underwater Vehicles in Relation to Four Surface Vehicles Using the TDOA Method

by Krzysztof Naus

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(8), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15081987 - 9 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1526

Abstract

This paper presents the results of research on the accuracy assessment of the positioning of a swarm of underwater vehicles based on hydroacoustic measurements made with respect to four surface vehicles under the time difference of arrival (TDOA) method. The assessment consisted of the estimation of accuracy parameters for determining the position of an underwater vehicle in relation to surface vehicles forming a so-called moving geometrical measurement structure (MGMS) in the following shapes: square, rectilinear, triangular, and three-pointed. This demonstrated that MGMS makes it possible to estimate the relative position of underwater vehicles in a swarm with an accuracy of 2.1 m (RMS) over an area of approx. 1000 m² and approx. 3.0 m (RMS) over an area of approx. 1600 m². The most favourable MGMS shapes include three-pointedwhile maximising the size of the positioning area, where the positioning accuracy should not exceed 3.0 m (RMS)—and rectilinear—while maximising the size of the positioning area, where the positioning accuracy should not exceed 10.0 m (RMS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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13 pages, 3103 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Maritime DGPS System Positioning Accuracy as a Function of the HDOP in the Context of Hydrographic Survey Performance

by Cezary Specht

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15010010 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5552

Abstract

The Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is a marine navigation system operating at frequencies of 283.5–325 kHz, which is now the primary method for locating vessels in coastal shipping, as well as hydrography and mapping systems worldwide. Its positioning accuracy is determined by the following: the pseudorange error to Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, the age of pseudorange corrections, and the value of the Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP), which, in terms of accuracy, is crucial in positioning using GPS satellites. In 2020, the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) introduced a new (the highest) order of hydrographic surveys, i.e., the Exclusive Order, which requires a positioning system to provide an accuracy of 1 m (p = 0.95). The aim of this article is to provide an answer to the question as to whether the maritime DGPS system, whose positioning accuracy is constantly increasing with that of the GPS system, fulfils the requirements for the hydrographic surveys of harbours. To this end, an extensive experimental study on the maritime DGPS system, involving a total of nearly 3.5 million fixes, was conducted. Statistical analyses showed that when ensuring the HDOP values range from 0.8 to 1.4, the DGPS system can be used in hydrographic surveys of harbours. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Navigation and Signal Processing)

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