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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 26875

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Boris D. Zaitsev

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Guest Editor

Kotelnikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saratov Branch, 410019 Saratov, Russia
Interests: theoretical and experimental research of bulk, surface and plate acoustic waves propagating in piezoelectric materials and structures, and developing various chemical, liquid and biological devices and sensors on this basis; the propagation of acoustic waves in conductive and viscous liquids and polymers and measures their acoustic parameters
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Dr. Irina A. Borodina

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Guest Editor

Kotelnikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saratov Branch, 410019 Saratov, Russia
Interests: theoretical and experimental research of bulk, surface and plate acoustic waves propagating in piezoelectric materials and structures, and developing various chemical, liquid and biological devices and sensors on this basis; creation of biological sensors for the detection and identification of viruses and bacteria, as well as antibiotics in various environments
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue “Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors” is devoted to the theoretical and experimental study of the characteristics of various types of piezoelectric resonators based on bulk acoustic waves as well as one-port or two-port resonators based on surface and plate acoustic waves. Particular attention is paid to those characteristics of the resonators that open up the possibility of creating sensors for various purposes. It is well known that piezoelectric resonators in combination with multilayer structures have good sensitivity to changes in various properties of the contacting medium. In this regard, the following topics are of particular interest regarding publication in this Special Issue:

Theoretical analysis of the characteristics and methods for measuring the parameters of various piezoelectric resonators on bulk, surface and plate acoustic waves.
Biological sensors for detection and identification of bacteria and viruses in various environments.
Liquid sensors for determining the mechanical and electrical characteristics of various liquids.
Gas sensors for determining the presence of gases in the air.
Meters of various physical quantities (pressure, temperature, mechanical displacement, magnetic and electric fields).

Dr. Boris D. Zaitsev
Dr. Irina A. Borodina
Guest Editors

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Keywords

piezoelectric resonators with longitudinal or lateral exciting electric field
resonators on plate or surface acoustic wave
calculation of resonator’s characteristics
measurement of resonator parameters
gas, liquid and biological sensors
meters for measurement of pressure, temperature, magnetic and electric fields

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

95 pages, 2351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Excitation and Readout of Resonators Used as Wireless Passive Sensors

by Leonhard M. Reindl, Taimur Aftab, Gunnar Gidion, Thomas Ostertag, Wei Luo and Stefan Johann Rupitsch

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1323; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041323 - 18 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1320

Abstract

Resonators are passive time-invariant components that do not produce a frequency shift. However, they respond to an excitation signal close to resonance with an oscillation at their natural frequencies with exponentially decreasing amplitudes. If resonators are connected to antennas, they form purely passive sensors that can be read remotely. In this work, we model the external excitation of a resonator with different excitation signals and its subsequent decay characteristics analytically as well as numerically. The analytical modeling explains the properties of the resonator during transient response and decay behavior. The analytical modeling clarifies how natural oscillations are generated in a linear time-invariant system, even if their spectrum was not included in the stimulation spectrum. In addition, it enables the readout signals to be optimized in terms of duration and bandwidth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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13 pages, 2902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Liquids Using a Resonator with a Longitudinal Electric Field

by Alexander Semyonov, Boris Zaitsev, Andrey Teplykh and Irina Borodina

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030793 - 25 Jan 2024

Viewed by 823

Abstract

The possibility of determining the elastic modules, viscosity coefficients, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity of a viscous conducting liquid using a piezoelectric resonator with a longitudinal electric field is shown. For the research, we chose a piezoelectric resonator made on an AT-cut quartz plate with round electrodes, operating with a shear acoustic mode at a frequency of about 4.4 MHz. The resonator was fixed to the bottom of a 30 mL liquid container. The samples of a mixture of glycerol and water with different viscosity and conductivity were used as test liquids. First, the frequency dependences of the real and imaginary parts of the electrical impedance of a free resonator were measured and, using the Mason electromechanical circuit, the elastic module, viscosity coefficient, piezoelectric constant and dielectric constant of the resonator material (quartz) were determined. Then, the container was filled with the test sample of a liquid mixture so that the resonator was completely covered with liquid, and the measurement of the frequency dependences of the real and imaginary parts of the electrical impedance of the loaded resonator was repeated. The dependences of the frequency of parallel and series resonances, as well as the maximum values of the electrical impedance and admittance on the conductivity of liquids for various viscosity values, were plotted. It was shown that these dependences can be used to unambiguously determine the viscosity and conductivity of the test liquid. Next, by fitting the theoretical frequency dependences of the real and imaginary parts of the electrical impedance of the resonator loaded with the liquid under study to the experimental dependences, the elastic module of the liquid and its dielectric constant were determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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13 pages, 3783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

UV Sensor Based on Surface Acoustic Waves in ZnO/Fused Silica

by Cinzia Caliendo, Massimiliano Benetti, Domenico Cannatà, Alessio Buzzin, Francesca Grossi, Enrico Verona and Giampiero de Cesare

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4197; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094197 - 22 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2244

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films have been grown by radio frequency sputtering technique on fused silica substrates. Optical and morphological characteristics of as-grown ZnO samples were measured by various techniques; an X-ray diffraction spectrum showed that the films exhibited hexagonal wurtzite structure and were c-axis-oriented normal to the substrate surface. Scanning electron microscopy images showed the dense columnar structure of the ZnO layers, and light absorption measurements allowed us to estimate the penetration depth of the optical radiation in the 200 to 480 nm wavelength range and the ZnO band-gap. ZnO layers were used as a basic material for surface acoustic wave (SAW) delay lines consisting of two Al interdigitated transducers (IDTs) photolithographically implemented on the surface of the piezoelectric layer. The Rayleigh wave propagation characteristics were tested in darkness and under incident UV light illumination from the top surface of the ZnO layer and from the fused silica/ZnO interface. The sensor response, i.e., the wave velocity shift due to the acoustoelectric interaction between the photogenerated charge carriers and the electric potential associated with the acoustic wave, was measured for different UV power densities. The reversibility and repeatability of the sensor responses were assessed. The time response of the UV sensor showed a rise time and a recovery time of about 10 and 13 s, respectively, and a sensitivity of about 318 and 341 ppm/(mW/cm²) for top and bottom illumination, respectively. The ZnO/fused silica-based SAW UV sensors can be interrogated across the fused silica substrate thanks to its optical transparency in the UV range. The backlighting interrogation can find applications in harsh environments, as it prevents the sensing photoconductive layer from aggressive environmental effects or from any damage caused by cleaning the surface from dust which could deteriorate the sensor’s performance. Moreover, since the SAW sensors, by their operating principle, are suitable for wireless reading via radio signals, the ZnO/fused-silica-based sensors have the potential to be the first choice for UV sensing in harsh environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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20 pages, 13920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustoelectric Effect of Rayleigh and Sezawa Waves in ZnO/Fused Silica Produced by an Inhomogeneous In-Depth Electrical Conductivity Profile

by Cinzia Caliendo

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2988; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062988 - 9 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

The acousto-electric (AE) effect associated with the propagation of Rayleigh and Sezawa surface acoustic waves (SAWs) in ZnO/fused silica was theoretically investigated under the hypothesis that the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric layer has an exponentially decaying profile akin to the photoconductivity effect induced by ultra-violet illumination in wide-band-gap photoconducting ZnO. The calculated waves’ velocity and attenuation shift vs. ZnO conductivity curves have the form of a double-relaxation response, as opposed to a single-relaxation response which characterizes the AE effect due to surface conductivity changes. Two configurations were studied which reproduced the effect of UV light illumination from the top or from the bottom side of the ZnO/fused silica substrate: 1. the ZnO conductivity inhomogeneity starts from the free surface of the layer and decreases exponentially in depth; 2. the conductivity inhomogeneity starts from the lower surface of the ZnO layer contacting the fused silica substrate. To the author’s knowledge, this is the first time the double-relaxation AE effect has been theoretically studied in bi-layered structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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18 pages, 1854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Analysis of Resonantly Driven Piezoelectric Sensors Operating in Amplitude Mode and Phase Mode

by Phillip Durdaut and Michael Höft

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 1899; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041899 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

Piezoelectric layers coupled to micromechanical resonators serve as the basis for sensors to detect a variety of different physical quantities. In contrast to passive sensors, actively operated sensors exploit a detuning of the resonance frequency caused by the signal to be measured. To detect the time-varying resonance frequency, the piezoelectric resonator is resonantly excited by a voltage, with this signal being modulated in both amplitude and phase by the signal to be measured. At the same time, the sensor signal is impaired by amplitude noise and phase noise caused by sensor-intrinsic noise sources that limit the reachable detectivities. This leads to the question of the optimum excitation frequency and the optimum readout type for such sensors. In this article, based on the fundamental properties of micromechanical resonators, a detailed analysis of the performance of piezoelectric resonators in amplitude mode and phase mode is presented. In particular, the sensitivities, the noise behavior, and the resulting limits of detection (LOD) are considered and analytical expressions are derived. For the first time, not only the influence of a static measurand is analyzed, but also the dynamic operation, i.e., physical quantities to be detected that quickly change over time. Accordingly, frequency-dependent limits of detection can be derived in the form of amplitude spectral densities. It is shown that the low-frequency LOD in phase mode is always about 6 dB better than the LOD in amplitude mode. In addition, the bandwidth, in terms of detectivity, is generally significantly larger in phase mode and never worse compared with the amplitude mode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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14 pages, 3308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Study of the Acoustic Characteristics of Chitosan Acetate Film Using a Radial Electric Field Excited Resonator

by Andrey Teplykh, Boris Zaitsev, Alexander Semyonov and Irina Borodina

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 1808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041808 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4716

Abstract

Currently, the lateral electric field excited resonators are used for the creation of various sensors. We have recently proposed a new type of acoustic resonator called radial electric field excited disk acoustic resonator. The advantage of this type of resonator is its high sensitivity to mechanical and electrical boundary conditions on its free surface. This makes it possible to determine both the acoustic and electrical properties of a thin layer of material deposited on the free end of the resonator. In this work, we used a radial electric field excited disk acoustic resonator of Russian-made barium plumbum zirconate titanate (BPZT) piezoceramics. With the help of this resonator, the material constants for the piezoceramic sample were refined, and their temperature dependencies were determined. Then, this resonator was used to determine the elastic modulus, viscosity, and conductivity of the chitosan acetate film in air and ammonia vapors of various concentrations. It was shown that the chitosan acetate film under the influence of ammonia vapor significantly changes its mechanical properties and increases its electrical conductivity thousands of times, and then completely restores its properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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9 pages, 5927 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Design and Fabrication of a Flexible Gravimetric Sensor Based on a Thin-Film Bulk Acoustic Wave Resonator

by Giovanni Niro, Ilaria Marasco, Francesco Rizzi, Antonella D’Orazio, Marco Grande and Massimo De Vittorio

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1655; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031655 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2225

Abstract

Sensing systems are becoming less and less invasive. In this context, flexible materials offer new opportunities that are impossible to achieve with bulky and rigid chips. Standard silicon sensors cannot be adapted to curved shapes and are susceptible to big deformations, thus discouraging their use in wearable applications. Another step forward toward minimising the impacts of the sensors can be to avoid the use of cables and connectors by exploiting wireless transmissions at ultra-high frequencies (UHFs). Thin-film bulk acoustic wave resonators (FBARs) represent the most promising choice among all of the piezoelectric microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonators for the climbing of radio frequencies. Accordingly, the fabrication of FBARs on flexible and wearable substrates represents a strategic step toward obtaining a new generation of highly sensitive wireless sensors. In this work, we propose the design and fabrication of a flexible gravimetric sensor based on an FBAR on a polymeric substrate. The resonator presents one of the highest electromechanical coupling factors in the category of flexible AlN-based FBARs, equal to 6%. Moreover, thanks to the polymeric support layer, the presence of membranes can be avoided, which leads to a faster and cheaper fabrication process and higher robustness of the structure. The mass sensitivity of the device was evaluated, obtaining a promising value of 23.31 ppm/pg. We strongly believe that these results can pave the way to a new class of wearable MEMS sensors that exploit ultra-high-frequency (UHF) transmissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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12 pages, 3918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustoelectric Effect for Rayleigh Wave in ZnO Produced by an Inhomogeneous In-Depth Electrical Conductivity Profile

by Cinzia Caliendo

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031422 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1814

Abstract

The acousto-electric (AE) effect associated with the propagation of the Rayleigh wave in ZnO half-space was theoretically investigated by studying the changes in wave velocity and propagation loss induced by in-depth inhomogeneous changes in the ZnO electrical conductivity. An exponentially decaying profile for the electrical conductivity was attributed to the ZnO half-space, for some values of the exponential decay constant (from 100 to 500 nm), in order to simulate the photoconductivity effect induced by ultra-violet illumination. The calculated Rayleigh wave velocity and attenuation vs. ZnO conductivity curves have the form of a double-relaxation response as opposed to the single-relaxation response which characterizes the well-known AE effect due to surface conductivity changes onto piezoelectric media. As to the author’s knowledge, this is the first time the double-relaxation AE effect has been theoretically predicted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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14 pages, 6139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multimode Design and Piezoelectric Substrate Anisotropy Use to Improve Performance of Acoustic Liquid Sensors

by Andrey Smirnov, Vladimir Anisimkin, Natalia Voronova, Elizaveta Shamsutdinova, Peng Li, Hamdi Ezzin, Zhenghua Qian, Tingfeng Ma and Iren Kuznetsova

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7231; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197231 - 23 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2236

Abstract

Using acoustic wave modes propagation in piezoelectric plates loaded with conductive liquids, peculiarities of the mode-liquid acoustoelectric interaction are studied. It is found that (i) in contrast to bulk and surface acoustic waves propagating in piezoelectric semiconductors, the acoustoelectric attenuation of the modes is not symmetric in respect to its maximum, (ii) a large increase in attenuation may be accompanied by a small decrease in phase velocity and vice versa, (iii) the peculiarities are valid for “pure” (without beam steering) and “not pure” (with beam steering) modes, as well as for modes of different orders and polarizations, and (iv) conductivity of test liquid increases electromagnetic leakage between input and output transducers, affecting results of the measurements. To decrease the leakage, the liquid should be localized between transducers, outside the zone over them. If so, the mode sensitivity may be as large as 8.6 dB/(S/m) for amplitude and 107°/(S/m) for phase. However, because of comparable cross-sensitivity towards viscosity and dielectric permittivity, modes with selective detection of liquid conductivity are not found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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13 pages, 3048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Frequency Surface Acoustic Wave Resonator with Diamond/AlN/IDT/AlN/Diamond Multilayer Structure

by Liang Lei, Bo Dong, Yuxuan Hu, Yisong Lei, Zhizhong Wang and Shuangchen Ruan

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6479; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176479 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3903

Abstract

A high-frequency surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonator, based on sandwiched interdigital transducer (IDT), is presented. The resonator has the structure of diamond/AlN/IDT/AlN/diamond, with Si as the substrate. The results show that its phase velocity and electromechanical coupling coefficient are both significantly improved, compared with that of the traditional interdigital transduce-free surface structure. The M2 mode of the sandwiched structure can excite an operation frequency up to 6.15 GHz, with an electromechanical coupling coefficient of 5.53%, phase velocity of 12,470 m/s, and temperature coefficient of frequency of −6.3 ppm/°C. This structure provides a new ideal for the design of high-performance and high-frequency SAW devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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14 pages, 5467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Affordable Open-Source Quartz Microbalance Platform for Measuring the Layer Thickness

by Adrian Matusiak and Andrzej Marek Żak

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176422 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2484

Abstract

The layer thickness measurement process is an indispensable companion of vacuum sputtering and evaporation. Thus, quartz crystal microbalance is a well-known and reliable method for monitoring film thickness. However, most commercial devices use very simple signal processing methods, offering only a readout of the frequency change value and an approximate sputtering rate. Here, we show our concept of instrument, to better control the process parameters and for easy replication. The project uses open-source data and its own ideas, fulfilling all the requirements of a measuring system and contributing to the open-source movement due to the added value and the replacement of obsolete technologies with contemporary ones. The device provides an easy way to expand existing sputtering machines with a proper controller based on our work. The device described in the paper can be easily used in need, being a proven project of a fast, inexpensive, and reliable thin-film thickness monitor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Resonator-Based Sensors)

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