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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Air, Climate Change and Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 June 2024) | Viewed by 28939

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Xingmin Shi

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Guest Editor

School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, China
Interests: farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate change; farmers’ livelihood vulnerability and sustainability; ecosystem services and human wellbeing

Prof. Dr. Liuyang Yao

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Guest Editor

College of Economics and Management, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
Interests: agricultural economics and management; resource and environmental economics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Qingqing Yang

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Guest Editor

Northwest Land and Resources Research Center, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, China
Interests: vulnerability and resilience of social ecosystems; climate change and sustainable livelihoods; human settlement evolution and adaptation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The scientific community has observed global and long-term climate change dominated by rising temperatures, which have exacerbated widespread, severe, and irreversible risks to natural and human systems and increased their vulnerability to climate change, particularly for farmers depending on natural resources. Therefore, exploring farmers’ mechanisms of adaptation to climate change can contribute to improving their adaptation and resilience, formulate effective bottom-up adaptive strategies, and achieve the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals for 2030.

Farmers’ adaptation to climate change and sustainable development are a research hotspot. Due to farmers’ characteristics as economic rational agents, their adaptive strategies are the results of various factors, among which the perception of climate change is the premise of adaptation. Furthermore, adaptive strategies adopted by farmers and their adaptability to climate change are crucial parts of reducing farmers’ vulnerability and improving their resilience in order to develop the goals of sustainable livelihoods. In the background of climate change, green and low-carbon agriculture are the only way to achieve sustainable agricultural development. Therefore, farmers’ mechanisms of adopting green and low-carbon agricultural technologies are an important part of understanding farmers’ adaptation to climate change at the micro level.

MDPI’s journal Sustainability is therefore launching a new Special Issue, entitled "Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development", aiming to provide a platform where researchers from multiple fields share and communicate the new findings on farmers’ adaptation mechanisms to climate change, farmers’ new efforts to achieve sustainable development, and new analytical approaches, which contribute to the sustainable development of environment.

In this Special Issue, high-quality original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to)：

adaptation to climate change
resilience to climate change
farmers’ perception of climate change
rural transformation and development
vulnerability and resilience of rural human settlement
green agriculture and farmers' green production behavior
low-carbon agricultural technology adoption by farmers

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Xingmin Shi
Prof. Dr. Liuyang Yao
Dr. Qingqing Yang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

climate change
perception
adaptation strategies
vulnerability
resilience
small farm households
livelihoods
transformation
sustainable development
rural human settlement
green agriculture
low-carbon agriculture

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 20182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Indices Applied to Remote Sensing for Establishing Winter–Spring Cropping Areas in the Republic of Kazakhstan

by Asset Arystanov, Natalya Karabkina, Janay Sagin, Marat Nurguzhin, Rebecca King and Roza Bekseitova

Sustainability 2024, 16(17), 7548; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177548 - 31 Aug 2024

Viewed by 792

Abstract

Farmers in Kazakhstan face unreliable water resources. This includes water scarcity in the summer, high fluctuations in precipitation levels, and an increase in extreme weather events such as snow, rain, floods, and droughts. Wheat production is regulated and subsidized by the Kazakh government to strengthen food security. The proper monitoring of crop production is vital to government agencies, as well as insurance and banking structures. These organizations offer subsidies through different levels support. Some farmers already use farmland soil monitoring combined with adaptive combinations of different crops. These include winter–spring plowing crop programs. Winter wheat crops are generally more adaptive and may survive summer droughts. Kazakhstan is a large country with large plots of farmland, which are complicated to monitor. Therefore, it would be reasonable to adapt more efficient technologies and methodologies, such as remote sensing. This research work presents a method for identifying winter wheat crops in the foothills of South Kazakhstan by employing multi-temporal Sentinel-2 data. Here, the researchers adapted and applied a Plowed Land Index, derived from the Brightness Index. The methodology encompasses satellite data processing, the computation of Plowed Land Index values for the swift recognition of plowed fields and the demarcation of winter wheat crop sowing regions, along with a comparative analysis of the acquired data with ground surveys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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17 pages, 7184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Footprint of Main Grain Crop Production in Hubei and Jiangsu Provinces, 2005–2019

by Yunxia Han, Wende Xi, Jing Xu and Guanxin Yao

Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6449; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156449 - 28 Jul 2024

Viewed by 933

Abstract

Hubei and Jiangsu Provinces, significant in grain production, play a crucial role in national food security. We studied the carbon footprint of main grain crops (rice, maize, and wheat) from 2005 to 2019 in these provinces to identify trends, contributing factors, and emission efficiencies. This study seeks to inform sustainable agricultural practices and policies in the context of climate change mitigation. Jiangsu Province’s rice and wheat output surpasses Hubei’s due to higher yields per unit area. Rice consistently shows the highest carbon footprint per unit area, followed by wheat, with maize exhibiting the lowest. Carbon footprint per unit yield varies significantly: for rice, it ranges from 0.15 to 0.29 kg CO₂-eq per kg; for wheat, from 0.19 to 0.22 kg CO₂-eq per kg; and for maize, from 0.13 to 0.15 kg CO₂-eq per kg. The distribution of crop production affects these footprints; central regions generally exhibit lower values compared to southwest and southeast areas. Fertilizer and electricity together contribute significantly to carbon emissions, especially in rice production (over 75%), and to a lesser extent in maize and wheat production (approximately 69% and 85%, respectively). Improving fertilizer efficiency, irrigation, and mechanization is crucial for developing low-carbon agriculture in these pivotal grain-producing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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21 pages, 4180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Responses of Ecosystem Services to Land Use/Cover Changes in Rapidly Urbanizing Areas: A Case Study of the Shandong Peninsula Urban Agglomeration

by Yongwei Liu and Yao Zhang

Sustainability 2024, 16(14), 6100; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146100 - 17 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1101

Abstract

The rapid expansion of built-up land, a hallmark of accelerated urbanization, has emerged as a pivotal factor contributing to regional climate change and the degradation of ecosystem functions. The decline in ecosystem service value (ESV) has consequently garnered significant attention in global sustainable development research. The Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration is crucial for promoting the construction of the Yellow River Economic Belt in China, with its ecological status increasingly gaining prominence. This study investigated the ESV response to land use/cover change (LUCC) through the elasticity coefficient in order to analyze the degree of disturbance caused by land use activities on ecosystem functions in the Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration. This analysis was based on the examination of LUCC characteristics and ESV from 1990 to 2020. The findings reveal that (1) the Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration experienced a continuous increase in the proportion of built-up land from 1990 to 2020, alongside a highly complex transfer between different land use types, characterized by diverse transfer trajectories. The most prominent features were noted to be the rapid expansion of built-up land and the simultaneous decline in agricultural land. (2) The analysis of four landscape pattern indices, encompassing Shannon’s diversity index, indicates that the continuous development of urbanization has led to increased fragmentation in land use and decreased connectivity. However, obvious spatial distribution differences exist among different districts and counties. (3) The ESV was revised using the normalized difference vegetation index, revealing a slight decrease in the total ESV of the Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration. However, significant differences were observed among districts and counties. The number of counties and districts exhibiting low and high ESVs continuously increased, whereas those with intermediate levels generally remained unchanged. (4) The analysis of the elasticity coefficient reveals that LUCC exerts a substantial disturbance and influence on ecosystem services, with the strongest disturbance ability occurring from 2000 to 2010. The elasticity coefficient exhibits obvious spatial heterogeneity across both the entire urban agglomeration and within individual cities. Notably, Qingdao and Jinan, the dual cores of the Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration, exhibit markedly distinct characteristics. These disparities are closely related to their development foundations in 1990 and their evolution over the past 30 years. The ESV response to LUCC displays significant variation across different time periods and spatial locations. Consequently, it is imperative to formulate dynamic management policies on the basis of regional characteristics. Such policies aim to balance social and economic development while ensuring ecological protection, thereby promoting the social and economic advancement and ecological environment preservation of the Shandong Peninsula urban agglomeration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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17 pages, 1294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual-Wheel Drive of Government Subsidies and Technical Support: A Study on the Mechanism of Promoting Rural Residents’ Green Production

by Songze Wu, Jiehui Xie, Fujun Tian, Qian Chen and Yan Liu

Sustainability 2024, 16(13), 5574; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135574 - 29 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1182

Abstract

It is of great significance to explore the effect of government subsidies and technical support on rural residents’ green production for improving the level of agricultural green development in the context of the green and high-quality development. Based on the theory of rural residents’ behavior, this paper empirically examined the impact of government subsidies and technical support on rural residents’ green production by using the ordered logit model and household survey data of CLES2022. Additionally, it applied the mediating effects model to explore the transmission mechanism. The results indicate that: (1) Government subsidies and technical support have a significant positive influence on rural residents’ green production. After controlling the characteristics of individuals, families, and cultivated land, the path coefficient is determined to be 0.032, which is significant at the 0.01 level; technical support significantly affects rural residents’ green production, and the path coefficient is 0.390, which is statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The above results are still valid after a robustness test. (2) In terms of the mechanism, government subsidies and technical support promote rural residents’ green production through service outsourcing and productive assets. On this basis, the paper proposed some policy suggestions, such as giving full play to the guiding role of government subsidies, increasing government technical support, establishing a service outsourcing platform, as well as strengthening supervision and evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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19 pages, 2546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response and Adaptation of Farmers’ Livelihood Transformation under the Background of Rural Transformation: Evidence from the Qinling Mountains, China

by Sha Yin, Xinjun Yang and Jia Chen

Sustainability 2023, 15(17), 13004; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151713004 - 29 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1412

Abstract

Adaptation provides a new perspective for the study of farmers’ livelihood transformation and sustainability. This research aimed to explore the influencing factors of different types and adaptation of farmers’ livelihood transformation during rural transformation. Based on summarizing the response of farmers’ livelihood transformation during the rural transformation process in the Qinling Mountains of China from 1990 to 2018, this research constructed an evaluation index system for the adaptation of farmers’ livelihood transformation. Through questionnaires and interview surveys and based on the classification of farmers’ adaptive behavior, the research measured the adaptation index of different types of farmers’ livelihood transformation during different rural transformation periods and analyzed the factors affecting the types and the adaptation of farmers’ livelihood transformation. The results showed that: ① From 1990 to 2018, the livelihood transformation of farmers in Shangzhou District of Qinling Mountains mainly experienced changes from the farming + the working oriented to the synthetic type + the working oriented. ② From 1990 to 2018, the adaptation index of farmers’ livelihood transformation increased significantly in growth. From 1990 to 2009, the adaptation index of farmers’ livelihood transformation of working oriented and synthetic type was relatively high and concentrated. The distribution of the adaptation index of farmers’ livelihood transformation in 2010–2018 was relatively scattered. ③ Farmers with richer social networks tended to choose comprehensive and diversified livelihoods. Farmers with richer financial and natural capital were more likely to choose non-agricultural livelihoods. Leadership potential and social network, livestock, income status, and actual cultivated area were the key variables that have been influencing the adaptation of farmers’ livelihood transformation in Shangzhou District since 1990. The research results contribute to the optimization of sustainable livelihood strategies for farmers in the Qinling Mountains of China and provide case references for the study of livelihood transformation of farmers in underdeveloped mountainous areas worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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30 pages, 1068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proactive Adaptation Responses by Vulnerable Communities to Climate Change Impacts

by Kumar Bahadur Darjee, Prem Raj Neupane and Michael Köhl

Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 10952; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410952 - 12 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4714

Abstract

We explored the proactive responses of local communities against locally experienced climate change impacts and anticipated threats. This study interviewed 124 rural households from three community forestry user groups representing three ecological regions of Nepal using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study used eight criteria to distinguish the proactive nature of adaptation. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze data, including the use of a chi-square (χ²) test to determine the proactive measures and their association with livelihood options and the ordered logistic regression model to explain determining factors of choosing proactive adaptations. The results indicate that 83.9% of households adapted both proactive and reactive measures, while 10.5% applied solely reactive adaptation and 5.6% were earmarked only for proactive adaptation measures. Over 50 different proactive adaptation measures were implemented by the households. The measures were significantly associated with agricultural diversification, cash crop cultivation, livestock raising, small-scale enterprise development, and disaster control. Socio-economic and spatial factors such as a household’s wellbeing, land holding size, geographical location, livelihood options, and the number of adaptation measures implemented by households were found to be decisive factors in choosing proactive adaptation. The study concludes that local people in Nepal are not only aware of escalating climate risks but also engage their cognition and knowledge proactively to adapt locally. The results suggest that even small proactive initiatives by households can offer multiple benefits against climate risks as an architect of individuals. Therefore, adopting a trans-disciplinary approach and nurturing local proactive actions in strategic connectivity between environmental, political, and societal functions is pivotal, which primarily takes a step to drive expediently successful climate change policy and strategy implementation. The findings of this study offer valuable insights into policy and strategy planning for the unsolicited consequences of climate change and highlight the importance of understanding the perspective of local communities in adaptation planning and implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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31 pages, 24167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contributions and Resistances to Vulnerability of Rural Human Settlements System in Agricultural Areas of Chinese Loess Plateau since 1980

by Qingqing Yang, Yanhui Gao, Xiaoshu Cao and Jie Yang

Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 10948; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410948 - 12 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1121

Abstract

The vulnerability evolution of human settlements system on the micro-scale is a direct indicator of the local impact of global environmental change. Traditional agricultural areas are most vulnerable to climate and market changes. Due to the lack of historical statistics, micro-scale quantitative studies on the historical evolution of vulnerability are extremely scarce. From the perspective of the socio-ecological system, this study conducted field investigations along with quantitative assessment and an ethnographic approach to explore the vulnerability change of rural human settlements system since 1980 in Jia County, an agro-pastoral interlocking area. The study found that the vulnerability of natural, dwelling and social systems has continued to decrease, while human system vulnerability increased. At present, the RHSS is characterized by the poor quality of the river, a depressed rural population and a large gap between the rich and poor as weaknesses, and is characterized by sandstorm disaster reduction, more robust rural roads, adequate water for domestic use and high social security as strengths. Results revealed that ecological projects, increased precipitation, market changes, urbanization siphoning and farmer behaviors are key drivers to the vulnerability change since 1980. The study findings can be directly applied to rural revitalization strategies, vulnerability mitigation and adaptive management practices in China. In addition, the vulnerability evolution under multiple perturbations can provide guidance for settlement planning and construction in traditional agricultural areas among developing countries under global changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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19 pages, 1022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Analysis and Simulation of the Feasibility and Stability of Innovative Carbon Emission Reduction Projects Entering the Carbon-Trading Market

by Haotong Jiang, Liuyang Yao, Xueru Bai and Hua Li

Sustainability 2023, 15(8), 6908; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086908 - 19 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1763

Abstract

Designing green agricultural production projects as CER projects is attractive, as it can play a role in promoting the spread of green production technologies and reducing carbon emissions based on market-based compensation. This research constructed a generic analytical framework using evolutionary game methods to evaluate the feasibility and stability of innovative CER projects by numerical analysis or simulation. Finally, two complex scenarios were analysed using simulations based on the framework. The simulation analysis results show that when the profits of VER and CER projects are close, the government’s direct intervention will lead to instability in market development, and the development of VER projects should be focused on. Government subsidies to promote the agricultural sector to participate in CER construction can be gradually reduced with the development of the market. When the reduction speed is slow enough, the effectiveness of subsidies will not be affected. The framework will be helpful to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of CER mechanism innovation and development, and to formulate more targeted policies to promote the popularization of green agricultural production technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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16 pages, 1654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms and Empirical Analysis of the Impact of Soil and Water Conservation on the Livelihood and Well-Being of Farmer Households: A Case Study in Desert–Loess Transition Zone of China

by Biyao Jiang, Xingmin Shi and Yuhan Qin

Sustainability 2023, 15(8), 6569; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086569 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1914

Abstract

Climate change brings great uncertainty to the sustainable livelihood of farmers. Soil and water conservation measures are the key measures to adapt to climate change, and studying their effects is of great significance to formulating and adjusting future work. Based on the analysis framework of sustainable livelihood, this study constructed a path model to analyze the influence path among soil and water conservation, farmers’ livelihood and well-being from the perspective of model integration and discussed the mechanism of the effect of soil and water conservation well-being. The results show that (1) soil and water conservation has a significant effect on both the livelihood and well-being of farmer households. Soil and water conservation has a positive effect on farmer households’ livelihood capital, and farmers who participated in soil and water conservation prefer to engage in agricultural activities, with a cumulative effect of livelihood capital and livelihood strategies dependence. However, the direct effect of soil and water well-being is not significant, but only in terms of farmers’ security and health. (2) Through the “livelihood capital accumulation mechanism”, “livelihood strategies dependence mechanism” and “livelihood chain mechanism”, soil and water conservation affects the basic material needs, safety and health, freedom of choice and movement of farmers’ well-being. (3) In order to further promote soil and water conservation measures, relevant policy makers can indirectly enhance the soil and water conservation well-being effect by optimizing the livelihood portfolio of farmers, thus attracting the extensive participation of farmers. This study provides analytical ideas for exploring the role of the relationship between soil and water conservation, livelihood and well-being, and offers suggestions for increasing the participation of farmers in soil and water conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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16 pages, 7386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perceptions of Climate Adaptation and Mitigation: An Approach from Societies in Southern Ecuadorian Andes

by Verónica Iñiguez-Gallardo and Joseph Tzanopoulos

Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021086 - 6 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2096

Abstract

Climate research has steadily identified that public responses to the impacts associated with climate change are locally adjusted. These responses are mostly shaped by the prevailing socio-cultural knowledge systems underpinned by resilience thinking in the face of change and adversity. Despite the increasing scientific and policy attention to peoples’ perceptions of climatic changes and adaptive responses, there is still a lag in the more detailed probing and exploration of the local level demographic profiles related to the perceptions of and attitudes and responses to mitigation and adaptation strategies. This is of particular importance as the research, planning, and action concerning climate change mitigation and adaptation needs to be informed by and implemented within specific place contexts. Based largely on semi-structured interviews and complementary face-to-face questionnaires, this study focuses on southern Ecuador to identify people’s stances on climate change mitigation and adaptation and to investigate further the perceptions of farmers on adaptation. The results indicate a tendency among urban residents towards a pro-mitigation stance. Those with a pro-adaptation stance are mainly the residents of rural areas and farmers. Farmers appeared to be highly adaptive to climatic changes and are led by a self-assessed ability to adapt. Their adaptive responses vary according to the geographical place of residence, type of farmer, and age. The findings offer local level empirical evidence for designing effective adaptation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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16 pages, 1246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Livelihood Capital, Ecological Cognition, and Farmers’ Green Production Behavior

by Jianhua Ren, Hongzhen Lei and Haiyun Ren

Sustainability 2022, 14(24), 16671; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416671 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Green development of agriculture is inevitable to meet the objective demand of rural ecological environment protection and high-quality agricultural development. Livelihood capital is the basic condition for farmers to carry out the activities of production and management, while ecological cognition is the direct motivation for their behaviors. Based on field research data from 436 farm households in 4 counties of Langao, Fuping, Mian, and Yaozhou in Shaanxi Province, China, the study conducted the double-hurdle model (DHM) to empirically analyze the effects of livelihood capital and ecological cognition on farmer’s decision on green production and the degree of green production. The results show that (1) farmers’ livelihood capital is the basic condition that significantly affects farmers’ green production. Specifically, human capital and social capital have a positive contribution to farmers’ green production decision and degree of green production; natural capital and financial capital do not have a significant effect on green production decision, but have a significant positive effect on the degree of green production behavior; physical capital, as farmers’ stock capital, does not have a significant effect on green production behavior. (2) Ecological cognition plays a positive moderating role in farmers’ decisions on green production, but as a subjective cognition, its contribution to the degree of green production is not significant. This paper explores the relationship between livelihood capital, ecological cognition, and farmers’ green production behavior, and provides suggestions for improving farmers’ participation in green production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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Review

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23 pages, 5488 KiB

Open AccessReview

Diffusion of Agricultural Technology Innovation: Research Progress of Innovation Diffusion in Chinese Agricultural Science and Technology Parks

by Xieyang Chen and Tongsheng Li

Sustainability 2022, 14(22), 15008; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215008 - 13 Nov 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7676

Abstract

With the rapid development of agricultural technology in China, a new model of agricultural technology diffusion, represented by agricultural science and technology parks, has been formed. We systematically sort out the progress of agricultural technology diffusion-related research based on a proposed research framework of technology diffusion in agricultural science and technology parks. The growth mechanism of agricultural technology poles, agricultural technology diffusion system, and its characteristics are analyzed. An index system of technology diffusion environment evaluation is summarized. From the perspective of the “basic” paradigm, we discuss the characteristics of the time process (diffusion stage, diffusion speed, diffusion breadth) and the spatial process (diffusion effect, spatial pattern) of technology diffusion in agricultural science and technology parks and their influence mechanisms. The fundamental law of “point-axis” diffusion of technology diffusion in the park is summarized. From the perspective of the “adoption” paradigm, we analyzed the influencing factors and mechanisms of farmers’ technology adoption. The effects of different environments and technologies with different attributes on farmers’ adoption behavior are explored. Based on the latest research results, we summarized new business agents’ technology adoption behaviors and mechanisms. Finally, we point out the issues that need to be further explored in studying the technology diffusion of agricultural innovations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Sustainable Development)

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