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19 pages, 13369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Vehicle Technology Exploration with an Open-Source Simulink Model Featuring Commercial Truck Solutions

by Chi-Jui Peng, Yi-Ting Liu and Kuei-Yuan Chan

Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 1008-1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020048 - 19 Jun 2024

Viewed by 601

Abstract

In response to the EU’s stringent zero-carbon emission standards for 2035 and global initiatives to phase out fossil-fuel-powered vehicles, there is an urgent need for innovative solutions in vehicle propulsion systems. While much of the current research focuses on electric passenger cars, commercial [...] Read more.

In response to the EU’s stringent zero-carbon emission standards for 2035 and global initiatives to phase out fossil-fuel-powered vehicles, there is an urgent need for innovative solutions in vehicle propulsion systems. While much of the current research focuses on electric passenger cars, commercial vehicles remain relatively underexplored despite their significant potential impact on carbon neutrality goals. This study presents an open-source Simulink model specifically tailored for the analysis of electric commercial trucks, concentrating on the 6.5-ton category. Developed to assess the influence of various power components and control strategies on driving range, the model incorporates three validated powertrain configurations and features such as regenerative braking and one-pedal drive. Simulations are conducted under two real-world driving scenarios in the city of Taipei in Taiwan to evaluate different configurations’ effects on energy consumption and efficiency. Results indicate that optimizing the vehicle configuration can reduce power consumption by 26.3% and extend driving range by an additional 25.1 km on a single battery charge. By making the model and its source code publicly available, this research not only fills a critical gap in specialized evaluation tools for electric commercial vehicles but also serves as a valuable resource for both industrial assessments and educational purposes in the field of vehicle electrification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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16 pages, 1040 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Mixed Learning- and Model-Based Mass Estimation of Heavy Vehicles

by Abdurrahman İşbitirici, Laura Giarré and Paolo Falcone

Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 765-780; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020036 - 30 Apr 2024

Viewed by 753

Abstract

This research utilized long short-term memory (LSTM) to oversee an RLS-based mass estimator based on longitudinal vehicle dynamics for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) instead of using the predefined rules. A multilayer LSTM network that analyzed parameters such as vehicle speed, longitudinal acceleration, engine torque, [...] Read more.

This research utilized long short-term memory (LSTM) to oversee an RLS-based mass estimator based on longitudinal vehicle dynamics for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) instead of using the predefined rules. A multilayer LSTM network that analyzed parameters such as vehicle speed, longitudinal acceleration, engine torque, engine speed, and estimated mass from the RLS mass estimator was employed as the supervision method. The supervisory LSTM network was trained offline to recognize when the vehicle was operated so that the RLS estimator gave an estimate with the desired accuracy and the network was used as a reliability flag. High-fidelity simulation software was employed to collect data used to train and test the network. A threshold on the error percentage of the RLS mass estimator was used by the network to check the reliability of the algorithm. The preliminary findings indicate that the reliability of the RLS mass estimator could be predicted by using the LSTM network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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19 pages, 8078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Energy Equivalent Speed of Car Damage Using a Finite Element Model

by Paweł Droździel, Tomas Pasaulis, Robertas Pečeliūnas and Saugirdas Pukalskas

Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 632-650; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020029 - 30 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1011

Abstract

To determine the speed of a vehicle in a collision with body deformation, the kinetic energy input of the vehicle to cause body damage must be estimated. This paper analyzes the methods for estimating the energy equivalent of vehicle damage. A finite element [...] Read more.

To determine the speed of a vehicle in a collision with body deformation, the kinetic energy input of the vehicle to cause body damage must be estimated. This paper analyzes the methods for estimating the energy equivalent of vehicle damage. A finite element model of a Toyota Yaris developed by the National Crash Analysis Center (NCAC) for use in the LS DYNA R.11.0.0 software environment is used for the simulation. The simulations include tests of the vehicle hitting a non-deformable wall, an object simulating a pole or a tree. The residual deformations obtained are used to determine the energy equivalent speed (EES) values using the “Crash 3—EBS Calculation 12.0” software and a visual comparison with the EES catalog database, where the EES parameter value is recalculated to take into account the difference in the mass of the vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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12 pages, 3996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybridisation Concept of Light Vehicles Utilising an Electrified Planetary Gear Set

by Michael Engels, Moritz Jakoby, Timm Fahrbach and Jakob Andert

Vehicles 2023, 5(4), 1622-1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles5040088 - 7 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1164

Abstract

Climate change and air pollution are two significant challenges facing our society and represent a major driver for new developments in the transport sector. As a consequence, automotive manufacturers have focused on the electrification of vehicle propulsion systems and offer a wide range [...] Read more.

Climate change and air pollution are two significant challenges facing our society and represent a major driver for new developments in the transport sector. As a consequence, automotive manufacturers have focused on the electrification of vehicle propulsion systems and offer a wide range of hybrid and full-electric vehicles in different classes. However, in the world’s most densely populated metropolitan areas, small and lightweight vehicles are key for the mobility of millions. Traditionally these vehicles have provided cost-effective transportation which is difficult to preserve with vehicle electrification. Many of these light vehicles, such as scooters and all-terrain vehicles, use internal combustion engines in combination with a continuously variable rubber belt transmission which provides a simple, comfortable and cost-effective transmission technology but with poor efficiency and high maintenance costs. In this contribution, a novel full hybrid powertrain concept is proposed that offers a similar driving experience to conventional continuously variable transmissions while providing significantly improved performance and fuel economy combined with low system complexity. In its basic configuration, the hybrid powertrain can operate without active actuators and even with mechanical throttle control of the internal combustion engine. This minimalist approach reduces system costs and helps to create a competitive solution for price-sensitive markets. The hybrid system is based on a planetary gear set that combines the internal combustion engine and an electric motor. It is complemented by a centrifugal clutch and one-way clutch, resulting in different operating modes for low and high speeds as well as for electric driving. This paper describes the mechanical design and control approach of the proposed hybrid powertrain layout. In order to evaluate the basic functionalities, a prototype vehicle was built and tested. This contribution shows the integration of the hybrid powertrain concept in a prototype vehicle and proves the fulfilment of all required full hybrid functionalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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15 pages, 1089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vehicle-to-Grid Market Readiness in Europe with a Special Focus on Germany

by Christopher Hecht, Jan Figgener and Dirk Uwe Sauer

Vehicles 2023, 5(4), 1452-1466; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles5040079 - 20 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3299

Abstract

Vehicle-to-grid means that electric vehicles are charged when electricity is plentiful and discharged when it is scarce. New battery-electric vehicles have an energy capacity above 60 kWh installed and practically always have a DC connector. With over 1 million of such vehicles in [...] Read more.

Vehicle-to-grid means that electric vehicles are charged when electricity is plentiful and discharged when it is scarce. New battery-electric vehicles have an energy capacity above 60 kWh installed and practically always have a DC connector. With over 1 million of such vehicles in Germany alone already, the flexibility potential to balance out fluctuating renewable generation or compensate for grid constraints is large. While many actors are working to enable this market, the readiness of hardware and regulations as well as the potential volume are hard to grasp. This paper provides an overview of these factors for Europe with a special focus on Germany. We find that some countries started to implement regulatory frameworks but none are ready yet. Issues include taxation, the fulfillment of grid codes, and the lack of smart meters. In terms of vehicles, 25 manufacturers with bidirectional charging ability were identified, but most vehicles were only used in field tests or operate in island mode. In terms of charging infrastructure, the picture is brighter with at least 20 manufacturers that offer DC bidirectional charging stations and 2 offering an AC variant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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14 pages, 10688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Automated Driving Function Based on the Apollo Platform: A Milestone for Simulation with Vehicle-in-the-Loop Testbed

by Hexuan Li, Vamsi Prakash Makkapati, Li Wan, Ernst Tomasch, Heinz Hoschopf and Arno Eichberger

Vehicles 2023, 5(2), 718-731; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles5020039 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2737

Abstract

With the increasing complexity of automated driving features, it is crucial to adopt innovative approaches that combine hardware and software to validate prototype vehicles in the early stages of development. This article demonstrates the effectiveness of a Vehicle-in-the-Loop (ViL) testbed in conducting dynamic [...] Read more.

With the increasing complexity of automated driving features, it is crucial to adopt innovative approaches that combine hardware and software to validate prototype vehicles in the early stages of development. This article demonstrates the effectiveness of a Vehicle-in-the-Loop (ViL) testbed in conducting dynamic tests of vehicles equipped with highly automated driving functions. The tests are designed to replicate critical driving scenarios from real-world environments on the ViL testbed. In this study, the Apollo platform is utilized to develop an automated driving function that can perceive the surrounding traffic in a virtual environment and generate feasible trajectories. This is achieved with the help of a multibody simulation platform. The control commands from the simulated driving function are then transmitted to the real vehicle to execute the planned action. The results demonstrate that critical traffic scenarios can be replicated more safely and repeatedly on the ViL testbed. Meanwhile, the Apollo-based driving function can effectively and comfortably cope with critical scenarios. Importantly, this study marks a significant milestone for the Apollo platform as it is implemented in a real-time system and tested on a ViL testbed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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Review

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32 pages, 904 KiB

Open AccessReview

Urban Air Mobility for Last-Mile Transportation: A Review

by Nima Moradi, Chun Wang and Fereshteh Mafakheri

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1383-1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030066 - 12 Aug 2024

Viewed by 313

Abstract

Urban air mobility (UAM) is a revolutionary approach to transportation in densely populated cities. UAM involves using small, highly automated aircraft to transport passengers and goods at lower altitudes within urban and suburban areas, aiming to transform how people and parcels move within [...] Read more.

Urban air mobility (UAM) is a revolutionary approach to transportation in densely populated cities. UAM involves using small, highly automated aircraft to transport passengers and goods at lower altitudes within urban and suburban areas, aiming to transform how people and parcels move within these environments. On average, UAM can reduce travel times by 30% to 40% for point-to-point journeys, with even greater reductions of 40% to 50% in major cities in the United States and China, compared to land transport. UAM includes advanced airborne transportation options like electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or drones). These technologies offer the potential to ease traffic congestion, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, and substantially cut travel times in urban areas. Studying the applications of eVTOLs and UAVs in parcel delivery and passenger transportation poses intricate challenges when examined through the lens of operations research (OR). By OR approaches, we mean mathematical programming, models, and solution methods addressing eVTOL- and UAV-aided parcel/people transportation problems. Despite the academic and practical importance, there is no review paper on eVTOL- and UAV-based optimization problems in the UAM sector. The present paper, applying a systematic literature review, develops a classification scheme for these problems, dividing them into routing and scheduling of eVTOLs and UAVs, infrastructure planning, safety and security, and the trade-off between efficiency and sustainability. The OR methodologies and the characteristics of the solution methods proposed for each problem are discussed. Finally, the study gaps and future research directions are presented alongside the concluding remarks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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18 pages, 1299 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing Security in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication: A Comprehensive Review of Protocols and Techniques

by Muhana Magboul Ali Muslam

Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 450-467; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010020 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2574

Abstract

Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication has played a pivotal role in modern intelligent transportation systems, enabling seamless information exchange among vehicles to enhance road safety, traffic efficiency, and overall driving experience. However, the secure transmission of sensitive data between vehicles remains a critical concern due [...] Read more.

Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication has played a pivotal role in modern intelligent transportation systems, enabling seamless information exchange among vehicles to enhance road safety, traffic efficiency, and overall driving experience. However, the secure transmission of sensitive data between vehicles remains a critical concern due to potential security threats and vulnerabilities. This research focused on investigating the security protocols that have been employed in vehicle-to-vehicle communication systems. A comprehensive review and analysis of relevant literature and research papers was conducted to gather information on existing V2V communication security protocols and techniques. The analysis encompassed key areas, including authentication mechanisms, encryption algorithms, key management protocols, and intrusion detection systems specifically applicable to V2V communication networks. Within the context of real-world V2V environments, this study delved into the challenges and limitations associated with implementing these protocols. The research aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the current V2V communication security protocols. Furthermore, based on the findings, this paper proposes improvements and recommendations to enhance the security measures of the V2V communication protocol. Ultimately, this research contributes to the development of more secure and reliable V2V communication systems, propelling the advancement of intelligent transportation technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)

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