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11 pages, 987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rhinovirus Genotypes Circulating in Bulgaria, 2018–2021

by Irina Georgieva, Asya Stoyanova, Svetla Angelova, Neli Korsun, Savina Stoitsova and Lubomira Nikolaeva-Glomb

Viruses 2023, 15(7), 1608; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15071608 - 22 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1772

Abstract

Rhinoviruses (RV) are one of the most common causative agents of respiratory infections, with significant socioeconomic impact. RV infections are not notifiable in Bulgaria, and little is known about the different RV genotypes circulating in the country. This study aims to investigate the [...] Read more.

Rhinoviruses (RV) are one of the most common causative agents of respiratory infections, with significant socioeconomic impact. RV infections are not notifiable in Bulgaria, and little is known about the different RV genotypes circulating in the country. This study aims to investigate the diversity of RV genotypes that were circulating in Bulgaria in the period 2018–2021 in samples from ILI/ARI patients. Genotype assignment was based on sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 5′ untranslated region and the VP4-VP2 region. Out of a total of 1385 nasopharyngeal swabs tested, 166 were RV-positive (RV detection rate: 11.99% (166/1385)). Those with a cycle threshold <25 were selected for genotyping (n = 63). RV isolates were successfully genotyped and classified into 34 genotypes within Rhinovirus A (RV-A), Rhinovirus B (RV-B) and Rhinovirus C (RV-C) species. Presumptive recombination events between the 5′UTR and VP4-VP2 regions were detected in three of the isolates. RV-A and RV-C were the prevalent RV species, with significantly more frequent detections of RV-A in the years before the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the post-pandemic period, when RV-C prevailed. The present study is the first to determine RV genotypes in Bulgaria and the circulation of RV-C has been described for the first time in the country. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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18 pages, 2518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity of Human Enterovirus Co-Circulations in Five Kindergartens in Bangkok between July 2019 and January 2020

by Pichamon Sittikul, Elizabeth M. Batty, Prasert Yodsawat, Jiratchaya Nuanpirom, Nathamon Kosoltanapiwat, Unitsa Sangket, Supawat Chatchen, Nicholas P. J. Day and Janjira Thaipadungpanit

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1397; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061397 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2234

Abstract

Human enterovirus causes various clinical manifestations in the form of rashes, febrile illness, flu-like illness, uveitis, hand–foot–mouth disease (HFMD), herpangina, meningitis, and encephalitis. Enterovirus A71 and coxsackievirus are significant causes of epidemic HFMD worldwide, especially in children aged from birth to five years [...] Read more.

Human enterovirus causes various clinical manifestations in the form of rashes, febrile illness, flu-like illness, uveitis, hand–foot–mouth disease (HFMD), herpangina, meningitis, and encephalitis. Enterovirus A71 and coxsackievirus are significant causes of epidemic HFMD worldwide, especially in children aged from birth to five years old. The enterovirus genotype variants causing HFMD epidemics have been reported increasingly worldwide in the last decade. We aim to use simple and robust molecular tools to investigate human enteroviruses circulating among kindergarten students at genotype and subgenotype levels. With the partial 5′-UTR sequencing analysis as a low-resolution preliminary grouping tool, ten enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) and coxsackievirus clusters were identified among 18 symptomatic cases and 14 asymptomatic cases in five kindergartens in Bangkok, Thailand, between July 2019 and January 2020. Two occurrences of a single clone causing an infection cluster were identified (EV-A71 C1-like subgenotype and coxsackievirus A6). Random amplification-based sequencing using MinION (Oxford Nanopore Technology) helped identify viral transmission between two closely related clones. Diverse genotypes co-circulating among children in kindergartens are reservoirs for new genotype variants emerging, which might be more virulent or better at immune escape. Surveillance of highly contagious enterovirus in communities is essential for disease notifications and controls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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13 pages, 1966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Characteristics of Enterovirus B83 Strain Isolated from a Patient with Acute Viral Myocarditis and Global Transmission Dynamics

by Juan Song, Huanhuan Lu, Lin Ma, Shuangli Zhu, Dongmei Yan, Jun Han and Yong Zhang

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1360; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061360 - 12 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1761

Abstract

This study determined the global genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of enterovirus B83 (EV-B83) and proposed future disease surveillance directions. Blood samples were collected from a patient with viral myocarditis, and viral isolation was performed. The complete genome sequence of the viral isolate [...] Read more.

This study determined the global genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of enterovirus B83 (EV-B83) and proposed future disease surveillance directions. Blood samples were collected from a patient with viral myocarditis, and viral isolation was performed. The complete genome sequence of the viral isolate was obtained using Sanger sequencing. A dataset of 15 sequences (from three continents) that had sufficient time signals for Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was set up, and the genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of global EV-B83 were analyzed using bioinformatics methods, including evolutionary dynamics, recombination event analysis, and phylogeographic analysis. Here, we report the complete genome sequence of an EV-B83 strain (S17/YN/CHN/2004) isolated from a patient with acute viral myocarditis in Yunnan Province, China. All 15 EV-B83 strains clustered together in a phylogenetic tree, confirming the classification of these isolates as a single EV type, and the predicted time for the most recent common ancestor appeared in 1998. Recombinant signals were detected in the 5’-untranslated region and 2A–3D coding regions of the S17 genome. The phylogeographic analysis revealed multiple intercontinental transmission routes of EV-B83. This study indicates that EV-B83 is globally distributed. Our findings add to the publicly available EV-B83 genomic sequence data and deepen our understanding of EV-B83 epidemiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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13 pages, 1831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recent Clinical Isolates of Enterovirus D68 Have Increased Replication and Induce Enhanced Epithelial Immune Response Compared to the Prototype Fermon Strain

by Mark K. Devries, Yury A. Bochkov, Michael D. Evans, James E. Gern and Daniel J. Jackson

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1291; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061291 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

In 2014, enterovirus D68 (EV-D68), previously associated primarily with mild respiratory illness, caused a large outbreak of severe respiratory illness and, in rare instances, paralysis. We compared the viral binding and replication of eight recent EV-D68 clinical isolates collected both before and during [...] Read more.

In 2014, enterovirus D68 (EV-D68), previously associated primarily with mild respiratory illness, caused a large outbreak of severe respiratory illness and, in rare instances, paralysis. We compared the viral binding and replication of eight recent EV-D68 clinical isolates collected both before and during the 2014 outbreak and the prototype Fermon strain from 1962 in cultured HeLa cells and differentiated human primary bronchial epithelial cells (BEC) to understand the possible reasons for the change in virus pathogenicity. We selected pairs of closely related isolates from the same phylogenetic clade that were associated with severe vs. asymptomatic infections. We found no significant differences in binding or replication in HeLa cell cultures between the recent clinical isolates. However, in HeLa cells, Fermon had significantly greater binding (2–3 logs) and virus progeny yields (2–4 logs) but a similar level of replication (1.5–2 log increase in viral RNA from 2 h to 24 h post infection) compared to recent isolates. In differentiated BECs, Fermon and the recent EV-D68 isolates had similar levels of binding; however, the recent isolates produced 1.5–2-log higher virus progeny yields than Fermon due to increased replication. Interestingly, no significant differences in replication were identified between the pairs of genetically close recent EV-D68 clinical isolates despite the observed differences in associated disease severity. We then utilized RNA-seq to define the transcriptional responses in BECs infected with four recent EV-D68 isolates, representing major phylogenetic clades, and the Fermon strain. All the tested clinical isolates induced similar responses in BECs; however, numerous upregulated genes in antiviral and pro-inflammatory response pathways were identified when comparing the response to clinical isolates versus Fermon. These results indicate that the recent emergence in severe EV-D68 cases could be explained by an increased replication efficiency and enhanced inflammatory response induced by newly emerged clinical isolates; however, host factors are likely the main determinants of illness severity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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12 pages, 5438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MAVS-Based Reporter Systems for Real-Time Imaging of EV71 Infection and Antiviral Testing

by Xiaozhen Li, E Yang, Xinyu Li, Tingting Fan, Shangrui Guo, Hang Yang, Bo Wu and Hongliang Wang

Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15051064 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1772

Abstract

Enterovirus consists of a variety of viruses that could cause a wide range of illness in human. The pathogenesis of these viruses remains incompletely understood and no specific treatment is available. Better methods to study enterovirus infection in live cells will help us [...] Read more.

Enterovirus consists of a variety of viruses that could cause a wide range of illness in human. The pathogenesis of these viruses remains incompletely understood and no specific treatment is available. Better methods to study enterovirus infection in live cells will help us better understand the pathogenesis of these viruses and might contribute to antiviral development. Here in this study, we developed fluorescent cell-based reporter systems that allow sensitive distinction of individual cells infected with enterovirus 71 (EV71). More importantly, these systems could be easily used for live-cell imaging by monitoring viral-induced fluorescence translocation after EV71 infection. We further demonstrated that these reporter systems could be used to study other enterovirus-mediated MAVS cleavage and they are sensitive for antiviral activity testing. Therefore, integration of these reporters with modern image-based analysis has the potential to generate new insights into enterovirus infection and facilitate antiviral development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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22 pages, 2524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stabilization of the Quadruplex-Forming G-Rich Sequences in the Rhinovirus Genome Inhibits Uncoating—Role of Na⁺ and K⁺

by Antonio Real-Hohn, Martin Groznica, Georg Kontaxis, Rong Zhu, Otávio Augusto Chaves, Leonardo Vazquez, Peter Hinterdorfer, Heinrich Kowalski and Dieter Blaas

Viruses 2023, 15(4), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041003 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2412

Abstract

Rhinoviruses (RVs) are the major cause of common cold, a respiratory disease that generally takes a mild course. However, occasionally, RV infection can lead to serious complications in patients debilitated by other ailments, e.g., asthma. Colds are a huge socioeconomic burden as neither [...] Read more.

Rhinoviruses (RVs) are the major cause of common cold, a respiratory disease that generally takes a mild course. However, occasionally, RV infection can lead to serious complications in patients debilitated by other ailments, e.g., asthma. Colds are a huge socioeconomic burden as neither vaccines nor other treatments are available. The many existing drug candidates either stabilize the capsid or inhibit the viral RNA polymerase, the viral proteinases, or the functions of other non-structural viral proteins; however, none has been approved by the FDA. Focusing on the genomic RNA as a possible target for antivirals, we asked whether stabilizing RNA secondary structures might inhibit the viral replication cycle. These secondary structures include G-quadruplexes (GQs), which are guanine-rich sequence stretches forming planar guanine tetrads via Hoogsteen base pairing with two or more of them stacking on top of each other; a number of small molecular drug candidates increase the energy required for their unfolding. The propensity of G-quadruplex formation can be predicted with bioinformatics tools and is expressed as a GQ score. Synthetic RNA oligonucleotides derived from the RV-A2 genome with sequences corresponding to the highest and lowest GQ scores indeed exhibited characteristics of GQs. In vivo, the GQ-stabilizing compounds, pyridostatin and PhenDC3, interfered with viral uncoating in Na⁺ but not in K⁺-containing phosphate buffers. The thermostability studies and ultrastructural imaging of protein-free viral RNA cores suggest that Na⁺ keeps the encapsulated genome more open, allowing PDS and PhenDC3 to diffuse into the quasi-crystalline RNA and promote the formation and/or stabilization of GQs; the resulting conformational changes impair RNA unraveling and release from the virion. Preliminary reports have been published. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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17 pages, 3133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human SCARB2 Acts as a Cellular Associator for Helping Coxsackieviruses A10 Infection

by Shu-Ling Yu, Nai-Hsiang Chung, Yu-Ching Lin, Yi-An Liao, Ying-Chin Chen and Yen-Hung Chow

Viruses 2023, 15(4), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15040932 - 8 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2555

Abstract

Coxsackievirus A10 (CVA10) causes hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) and herpangina, which can result in severe neurological symptoms in children. CVA10 does not use the common enterovirus 71 (EV71) receptor, human SCARB2 (hSCARB2, scavenger receptor class B, member 2), for infection but [...] Read more.

Coxsackievirus A10 (CVA10) causes hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) and herpangina, which can result in severe neurological symptoms in children. CVA10 does not use the common enterovirus 71 (EV71) receptor, human SCARB2 (hSCARB2, scavenger receptor class B, member 2), for infection but instead uses another receptor, such as KREMEN1. Our research has shown that CVA10 can infect and replicate in mouse cells expressing human SCARB2 (3T3-SCARB2) but not in the parental NIH3T3 cells, which do not express hSCARB2 for CVA10 entry. Knocking down endogenous hSCARB2 and KREMEN1 with specific siRNAs inhibited CVA10 infection in human cells. Co-immunoprecipitation confirmed that VP1, a main capsid protein where virus receptors for attaching to the host cells, could physically interact with hSCARB2 and KREMEN1 during CVA10 infection. It is the efficient virus replication following virus attachment to its cellular receptor. It resulted in severe limb paralysis and a high mortality rate in 12-day-old transgenic mice challenged with CVA10 but not in wild-type mice of the same age. Massive amounts of CVA10 accumulated in the muscles, spinal cords, and brains of the transgenic mice. Formalin inactivated CVA10 vaccine-induced protective immunity against lethal CVA10 challenge and reduced the severity of disease and tissue viral loads. This is the first report to show that hSCARB2 serves as an associate to aid CVA10 infection. hSCARB2-transgenic mice could be useful in evaluating anti-CVA10 medications and studying the pathogenesis induced by CVA10. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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12 pages, 6291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Neonatal Murine Model for Caprine Enterovirus Infection and the Viral Tissue Tropism

by Qun Zhang, Fan Zhang, Xiaoran Chang, Junying Hu, Zhiyuan Zhang, Xuyuan Cui, Xuebo Zheng and Xinping Wang

Viruses 2023, 15(2), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020475 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1821

Abstract

As the first caprine enterovirus identified from goat herds characterized by severe diarrhea with a high morbidity and mortality rate, the underlying pathogenesis and tissue tropism for CEV-JL14 remains largely unknown. Here, we reported the establishment of a neonatal murine model for caprine [...] Read more.

As the first caprine enterovirus identified from goat herds characterized by severe diarrhea with a high morbidity and mortality rate, the underlying pathogenesis and tissue tropism for CEV-JL14 remains largely unknown. Here, we reported the establishment of a neonatal murine model for caprine enterovirus and the unveiling of the tissue tropism and underlying pathogenesis for CEV-JL14 enterovirus. Susceptible murine strains, the infective dose, the infective routes, viral loads, and tissue tropism for CEV-JL14 infection were determined. The findings showed that ICR mice were susceptible to CEV-JL14 infection via all infection routes. Tissue viral load analysis showed that CEV-JL14 was detected in almost all tissues including the heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, intestine, brain, and muscle, with significantly higher viral loads in the heart, liver, lung, kidney, and intestine. These results revealed the pattern of viral load and tropism for CEV-JL14 and provided a model system for elucidating the pathogenesis of CEV-JL14 viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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18 pages, 2597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Replication Activities of Major 5′ Terminally Deleted Group-B Coxsackievirus RNA Forms Decrease PCSK2 mRNA Expression Impairing Insulin Maturation in Pancreatic Beta Cells

by Domitille Callon, Aurélien Guedra, Anne-Laure Lebreil, Laetitia Heng, Nicole Bouland, Paul Fornès, Fatma Berri and Laurent Andreoletti

Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2781; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14122781 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1942

Abstract

Emergence of 5′ terminally deleted coxsackievirus-B RNA forms (CVB-TD) have been associated with the development of human diseases. These CVB-TD RNA forms have been detected in mouse pancreas during acute or persistent experimental infections. To date, the impact of the replication activities of [...] Read more.

Emergence of 5′ terminally deleted coxsackievirus-B RNA forms (CVB-TD) have been associated with the development of human diseases. These CVB-TD RNA forms have been detected in mouse pancreas during acute or persistent experimental infections. To date, the impact of the replication activities of CVB-TD RNA forms on insulin metabolism remains unexplored. Using an immunocompetent mouse model of CVB3/28 infection, acute and persistent infections of major CVB-TD populations were evidenced in the pancreas. The inoculation of mice with homogenized pancreases containing major CVB-TD populations induced acute and chronic pancreatic infections with pancreatitis. In the mouse pancreas, viral capsid protein 1 (VP1) expression colocalized with a decrease in beta cells insulin content. Moreover, in infected mouse pancreases, we showed a decrease in pro-hormone convertase 2 (PCSK2) mRNA, associated with a decrease in insulin plasmatic concentration. Finally, transfection of synthetic CVB-TD50 RNA forms into cultured rodent pancreatic beta cells demonstrated that viral replication with protein synthesis activities decreased the PCSK2 mRNA expression levels, impairing insulin secretion. In conclusion, our results show that the emergence and maintenance of major CVB-TD RNA replicative forms in pancreatic beta cells can play a direct, key role in the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to the development of type 1 diabetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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12 pages, 2460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of a Vero Cell Line Expressing Human ICAM1 for the Development of Rhinovirus Vaccines

by Wouter Johannes Petrus van den Braak, Bella Monica, Diana Limpens, Dedeke Rockx-Brouwer, Matthijn de Boer and Dinja Oosterhoff

Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2235; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14102235 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2920

Abstract

Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are small non-enveloped RNA viruses that belong to the Enterovirus genus within the Picornaviridae family and are known for causing the common cold. Though symptoms are generally mild in healthy individuals, the economic burden associated with HRV infection is significant. [...] Read more.

Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are small non-enveloped RNA viruses that belong to the Enterovirus genus within the Picornaviridae family and are known for causing the common cold. Though symptoms are generally mild in healthy individuals, the economic burden associated with HRV infection is significant. A vaccine could prevent disease. The Vero-cell-based viral vaccine platform technology was considered for such vaccine development. Unfortunately, most HRV strains are unable to propagate on Vero cells due to a lack of the major receptor of HRV group A and B, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM1, also known as CD54). Therefore, stable human ICAM1 expressing Vero cell clones were generated by transfecting the ICAM1 gene in Vero cells and selecting clones that overexpressed ICAM1 on the cell surface. Cell banks were made and expression of ICAM1 was stable for at least 30 passages. The Vero_ICAM1 cells and parental Vero cells were infected with four HRV prototypes, B14, A16, B37 and A57. Replication of all four viruses was detected in Vero_ICAM1, but not in the parental Vero cells. Altogether, Vero cells expressing ICAM1 could efficiently propagate the tested HRV strains. Therefore, ICAM1-expressing cells could be a useful tool for the development and future production of polyvalent HRV vaccines or other viruses that use ICAM1 as a receptor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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Review

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23 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessReview

EV-A71 Mechanism of Entry: Receptors/Co-Receptors, Related Pathways and Inhibitors

by Kanghong Hu, Rominah Onintsoa Diarimalala, Chenguang Yao, Hanluo Li and Yanhong Wei

Viruses 2023, 15(3), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030785 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4135

Abstract

Enterovirus A71, a non-enveloped single-stranded (+) RNA virus, enters host cells through three stages: attachment, endocytosis and uncoating. In recent years, receptors/co-receptors anchored on the host cell membrane and involved in this process have been continuously identified. Among these, hSCARB-2 was the first [...] Read more.

Enterovirus A71, a non-enveloped single-stranded (+) RNA virus, enters host cells through three stages: attachment, endocytosis and uncoating. In recent years, receptors/co-receptors anchored on the host cell membrane and involved in this process have been continuously identified. Among these, hSCARB-2 was the first receptor revealed to specifically bind to a definite site of the EV-A71 viral capsid and plays an indispensable role during viral entry. It actually acts as the main receptor due to its ability to recognize all EV-A71 strains. In addition, PSGL-1 is the second EV-A71 receptor discovered. Unlike hSCARB-2, PSGL-1 binding is strain-specific; only 20% of EV-A71 strains isolated to date are able to recognize and bind it. Some other receptors, such as sialylated glycan, Anx 2, HS, HSP90, vimentin, nucleolin and fibronectin, were discovered successively and considered as “co-receptors” because, without hSCARB-2 or PSGL-1, they are not able to mediate entry. For cypA, prohibitin and hWARS, whether they belong to the category of receptors or of co-receptors still needs further investigation. In fact, they have shown to exhibit an hSCARB-2-independent entry. All this information has gradually enriched our knowledge of EV-A71’s early stages of infection. In addition to the availability of receptors/co-receptors for EV-A71 on host cells, the complex interaction between the virus and host proteins and various intracellular signaling pathways that are intricately connected to each other is critical for a successful EV-A71 invasion and for escaping the attack of the immune system. However, a lot remains unknown about the EV-A71 entry process. Nevertheless, researchers have been continuously interested in developing EV-A71 entry inhibitors, as this study area offers a large number of targets. To date, important progress has been made toward the development of several inhibitors targeting: receptors/co-receptors, including their soluble forms and chemically designed compounds; virus capsids, such as capsid inhibitors designed on the VP1 capsid; compounds potentially interfering with related signaling pathways, such as MAPK-, IFN- and ATR-inhibitors; and other strategies, such as siRNA and monoclonal antibodies targeting entry. The present review summarizes these latest studies, which are undoubtedly of great significance in developing a novel therapeutic approach against EV-A71. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enteroviruses 2023)

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