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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 October 2019) | Viewed by 37534

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Prof. Dr. R. Thomas Fernandez

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Guest Editor

Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824-1325, USA
Interests: water quality; water remediation; irrigation management; nutrient and pesticide dynamics; nutrient and pesticide remediation; container crops; horticulture

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The availability and quality of water resources are critical to producers of landscape plants, landscape and ecosystem service providers, and urban environment managers. Increased demand and competition for water resources are driving the need for better stewardship by those who use and affect water resources. Improved irrigation management and techniques for using lower quality water sources are becoming necessary for producers of landscape plants. The impact of the quantity and quality of waters leaving landscape plant production surfaces and the built environment on surrounding water resources is a concern for adjacent or downstream users of such resources. This Special Issue will focus on (1) improving irrigation management in plant production and designed landscapes including the use of alternative/lower quality water sources to reduce the use of higher quality water resources that are more desirable for direct human uses; (2) reducing the movement of contaiminants, e.g., pesticides, nutrients, urban pollutants, and/or pathogens, within or exiting from production systems and designed landscapes; and (3) using landscape plants to improve water management and quality in plant production or urban landscapes, e.g., stormwater mitigation, nutrient and/or pesticide remediation, and urban pollutants.

Prof. Dr. R. Thomas Fernandez
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Designed landscape
Greenhouse production
Nursery production
Reclaimed water
Recycled water
Urban stormwater
Water conservation
Water quality
Water remediation

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 4417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of Hydrangea paniculata Plants to Residual Herbicides in Recycled Irrigation Varies with Plant Growth Stage

by Shital Poudyal, James S. Owen, Jr., R. Thomas Fernandez and Bert Cregg

Water 2020, 12(5), 1402; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051402 - 15 May 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4240

Abstract

Recycling irrigation return flow is a viable option to achieve sustainability in horticultural production systems, but residual herbicides present in recycled water may be phytotoxic. The sensitivity of plants to residual herbicides may vary depending on the growth stage of the plant. If sensitive growth stages are avoided, the risk associated with using recycled water can be reduced. Here, we quantified the effect of residual oryzalin and oxyfluorfen exposure at various growth stages of Hydrangea paniculata. Exposure to both herbicides reduced plant growth, leaf visual rating, soil plant analysis development (SPAD) chlorophyll index, net photosynthesis, and light-adapted fluorescence of H. paniculata. Herbicide injury was greater for plants exposed to herbicides at early growth stages, however, the recovery rate of those plants was also rapid. For oxyfluorfen, plants produced healthy new growth immediately after the end of exposure, but for oryzalin, even newly formed leaves developed herbicide injury after the end of exposure, therefore leaf damage continued to progress before recovering. However, damage caused by residual herbicide exposure at all growth stages recovered over time. Physiological measurements such as the SPAD index, net photosynthesis, and light-adapted fluorescence responded quickly to herbicides exposure hence provided an early indicator of herbicide damage and recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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12 pages, 1020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Substrate Available Water and Coir Amendment Rate in Pine Bark Substrates

by Nastaran Basiri Jahromi, Amy Fulcher, Forbes Walker and James Altland

Water 2020, 12(2), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020362 - 29 Jan 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4536

Abstract

Water resources can be used more efficiently by including sustainable substrate components like coir that increase water-holding capacity. The first objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of coir amendment rate on plant available water and plant gas exchange, with the goal of optimizing substrate available water and determining the optimum coir amendment rate in a greenhouse environment. The second objective was to establish the optimum method of determining plant available water using either plant gas exchange parameters or substrate physical properties. Greenhouse experiments were conducted with Hydrangea paniculata ‘Jane’ (Little Lime^® hardy hydrangea) potted with one of five different coir rates (0%, 10%, 25%, 40% and 65%) mixed with pine bark on a volume basis. Plant gas exchange parameters and substrate water content were measured daily over a range of increasingly drier substrate moisture contents. Actual photosynthetic rates increased with increasing coir amendment rate and were highest with 65% coir amendment. Amending pine bark with coir increased the water storage capacity, plant available water, and plant gas exchange parameters. Results suggest that 65% coir amendment rate was the optimum amendment rate among those tested in a greenhouse environment and plant photosynthetic rate was the better method of determining plant available water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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12 pages, 748 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Testing An Adoption Decision-Making Model of Nursery and Greenhouse Growers’ Water Reuse in the United States

by Alexa J. Lamm, Laura A. Warner, Abraham Tidwell, Kevan W. Lamm, Paul R. Fisher and Sarah White

Water 2019, 11(12), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122470 - 23 Nov 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3046

Abstract

There is an increasing necessity to implement water treatment technologies in order to optimize the use of freshwater resources as the global nursery and greenhouse industry grows. Unfortunately, their adoption has been limited. This study tested a conceptual model for technology adoption based on the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations in tandem with Adaption-Innovation Theory and Critical Thinking Style literature. Using a series of linear and logistic regressions, three characteristics of an innovation—relative advantage, complexity, and trialability—were identified as significant drivers of growers’ decisions to implement water treatment technologies. Growers who seek information when thinking critically and are more innovative when solving problems did not perceive new technologies to be compatible or to possess a relative advantage over their current systems. The results suggested most growers are unsure of how new technologies fit into their existing operations. Creating opportunities for growers to get hands on experience with new technologies, such as a field day, could assist in increasing growers’ implementation. In addition, developing a series of online videos highlighting how to use, adapt and troubleshoot the equipment would greatly enhance chances of long-term adoption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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16 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Scarcity Footprint Analysis of Container-Grown Plants in a Model Research Nursery as Affected by Irrigation and Fertilization Treatments

by Joshua Knight, Damon E. Abdi, Dewayne L. Ingram and R. Thomas Fernandez

Water 2019, 11(12), 2436; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122436 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3538

Abstract

Water scarcity footprint (WSF) was determined for irrigation experiments in 2017 and 2018 for container-grown plants in a specially designed research nursery in Michigan, USA. The system design allowed for the capture of irrigation water running off a fabric surface of a nursery bed and irrigation water that passed through the fabric surface and moved through a bed of sand under the fabric. The volume of irrigation water applied (IWA) from a groundwater source and the volume of water that would be necessary to dilute (WD) water leaving the system to tap water standards for

{NO}_{3}^{-}

and

{PO}_{4}^{3 -}

of 10 mg L⁻¹ and 0.05 mg L⁻¹, respectively, were determined. The sum of IWA and WD would be the consumptive water use (CWU) of each treatment. WSF was calculated by weighting these component volumes per plant grown in a 10.2 L container using the consumption-to-availability scarcity index for this river basin. The WSF of water requirements for dilution (WSF_wd) for plants in 2017 (20 May to 25 September) were calculated as 150, 37, and 34 L per plant for control plants, those receiving 2 L per day, and those returned to container capacity daily, respectively. In 2018 (11 June to 12 October), WSF of irrigation water applied (WSF_iwa) for control plants, those receiving daily water use replacement (DWU), and those returned to container capacity daily were calculated to be 116, 61, and 28 L. Control plants received 19 mm of irrigation daily through overhead sprinklers in both experiments. In almost all cases, the

{PO}_{4}^{3 -}

dilution requirements set the dilution coefficients for WSF_wd calculations. The irrigation control treatment resulted in higher WSF_wd than irrigation treatments through spray stakes providing 2 L per container per day, irrigation returning the substrate water content to container capacity daily, or daily irrigation based on DWU. Fertilizer treatments and substrate composition treatments across irrigation treatments had only a minor impact on WSF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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18 pages, 3787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dose-Dependent Phytotoxicity of Pesticides in Simulated Nursery Runoff on Landscape Nursery Plants

by Shital Poudyal, R. Thomas Fernandez, James Owen and Bert Cregg

Water 2019, 11(11), 2354; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112354 - 9 Nov 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4023

Abstract

Managers of ornamental nurseries are increasingly reusing runoff water as an irrigation source, but residual pesticides in recycled water may result in plant phytotoxicity on crop plants. Our study focused on understanding the responses of container-grown landscape plants to residual pesticides in irrigation water. Hydrangea paniculata ‘Limelight’, Cornus obliqua ‘Powell garden’, and Hosta ‘Gold standard’ were exposed to various concentrations of isoxaben, chlorpyrifos, and oxyfluorfen (0, 0.15, 0.35, 0.7, and 1.4 mg/L of isoxaben; 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg/L of chlorpyrifos; and 0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, and 0.02 mg/L of oxyfluorfen) applied as overhead irrigation. After three months of application, we assessed the dry weight biomass, growth, and parameters related to photosynthetic physiology (SPAD chlorophyll index, light-adapted chlorophyll fluorescence, and photosynthesis carbon dioxide response (A/Ci) curves. We also sampled plant leaf, stem, and root tissues for residual pesticides. The effects of the pesticides were pesticide-specific and taxa-specific. Exposure to oxyfluorfen resulted in visible injury in all three taxa and reduced total biomass, chlorophyll index, and photosynthesis in Hydrangea and Hosta. All three taxa absorbed and retained pesticides in leaf and stem tissues. Growers should follow best management practices to reduce exposure from irrigation with runoff, particularly for herbicides with post-emergent activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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19 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Greenhouse and Nursery Water Management Characterization and Research Priorities in the USA

by Sarah A. White, James S. Owen, John C. Majsztrik, Lorence R. Oki, Paul R. Fisher, Charles R. Hall, John D. Lea-Cox and R. Thomas Fernandez

Water 2019, 11(11), 2338; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112338 - 8 Nov 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4366

Abstract

Nursery, floriculture, and propagation production accounted for 79% ($13.3 Billion) of 2017 ornamental specialty crop production in the United States. Access to high quality water sources is increasingly limited for irrigating these economically significant crops. Given the production, environmental, and economic issues associated with the use of water—including recycled, reclaimed, surface, and ground water—it is critical to develop sustainable runoff, containment, and remediation technologies, and to identify alternative sources of water. To better understand current practices and future water-related needs as perceived by grower stakeholders, an online survey was distributed nationally and five in-depth round table discussion sessions were conducted at the Mid-Atlantic Nursery Trade Show, Gulf States Horticultural Expo, California Grown Show, AmericanHort’s Cultivate, and the Farwest Show with a total of 36 individual industry participants. A team of research and extension specialists facilitated by a Specialty Crops Research Initiative Planning Grant (NIFA Project # 2011-51181-30633) analyzed and concisely summarized the results from the survey and the round table discussions. Research priorities related to water management identified by stakeholders revolved around six themes: (1) recycled water infrastructure and management; (2) contaminants; (3) plant health and water quality; (4) water treatment technologies; (5) competing and complementary water uses; (6) societal perception of agricultural water use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

19 pages, 1927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Conserving Irrigation Practices, Plant Growth, Seasonal Crop Coefficients, and Nutrition of Container-Grown Woody Ornamentals

by R. Thomas Fernandez, Nicholas A. Pershey, Jeffrey A. Andresen and Bert M. Cregg

Water 2019, 11(10), 2070; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102070 - 3 Oct 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3255

Abstract

Irrigation practices for container nursery crops often result in over-application and can lead to leaching of nutrients and reduced growth. Our objectives were to: (1) compare growth and foliar nutrient content for plants under daily water use (DWU) based irrigation treatments, (2) determine DWU of 14 woody ornamental taxa, and (3) classify taxa into irrigation functional groups based on crop coefficients (K_C). Irrigation was applied daily to 8 taxa in 2009 and 2010 using a control of 19 mm and three irrigation treatments: (1) replacing 100% plant DWU (100DWU) each day, (2) alternating 100% DWU with 75% DWU in a 2-day cycle (100-75DWU), and (3) a 3-day cycle replacing 100% DWU the first day and 75% DWU on the second and third days (100-75-75DWU). In 2009, seasonal average DWU ranged between 8.8 and 17.3 mm depending on taxa and treatment. Most DWU-based treatments resulted in less water applied than the control, yet plant growth was not reduced, and for one taxon (Hydrangea paniculata ‘Limelight’) the 100DWU increased plant growth index. Lower foliar P and K concentrations were found for several taxa in control versus DWU treatments. In 2010, DWU for the season ranged between 2.1- and 22.0-mm d⁻¹ depending on taxa and treatment. Growth was lower only for 100-75-75DWU Hydrangea paniculata ‘Limelight’ compared to other treatments and there were no differences in foliar nutrient content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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10 pages, 761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphate Removal from Nursery Runoff Water Using an Iron-Based Remediation System

by Francisca Ordonez Hinz, Joseph P. Albano and P. Chris Wilson

Water 2019, 11(4), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040795 - 17 Apr 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2988

Abstract

Phosphorous (P) losses from containerized plant production nurseries can be significant due to the low nutrient retention capacities of the media components. As environmental regulators establish, refine, and enforce nutrient criteria, effective methods are needed to reduce amounts of P in runoff and drainage water. This study investigated the use of a small scale flow-through ferrous iron (Fe(II))-based remediation system for chemically precipitating P. This system consisted of four inter-connected tanks, with the first two maintained under anaerobic conditions and the last two maintained under aerobic conditions. FeSO₄ was introduced into the first of the aerobic tanks at different rates to achieve Fe:P ratios of 0, 9.0, 16.3, and 21.2. Water samples were collected from the systems, and P removal was monitored by ion chromatography. Phosphorus removal efficiencies of 78, 95, and 99% were observed for each respective treatment, indicating great potential for this conceptual system at Fe:P dosing ratios ≥16.3 and phosphorus concentrations between 3 and 5 mg/L. This type of system may especially be useful for nurseries with space limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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14 pages, 4645 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Comparison of Irrigation-Water Containment Methods and Management Strategies Between Two Ornamental Production Systems to Minimize Water Security Threats

by Andrew G. Ristvey, Bruk E. Belayneh and John D. Lea-Cox

Water 2019, 11(12), 2558; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122558 - 3 Dec 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4037

Abstract

Water security in ornamental plant production systems is vital for maintaining profitability. Expensive, complicated, or potentially dangerous treatment systems, together with skilled labor, is often necessary to ensure water quality and plant health. Two contrasting commercial ornamental crop production systems in a mesic region are compared, providing insight into the various strategies employed using irrigation-water containment and treatment systems. The first is a greenhouse/outdoor container operation which grows annual ornamental plants throughout the year using irrigation booms, drip emitters, and/or ebb and flow systems depending on the crop, container size, and/or stage of growth. The operation contains and recycles 50–75% of applied water through a system of underground cisterns, using a recycling reservoir and a newly constructed 0.25 ha slow-sand filtration (SSF) unit. Groundwater provides additional water when needed. Water quantity is not a problem in this operation, but disease and water quality issues, including agrochemicals, are of potential concern. The second is a perennial-plant nursery which propagates cuttings and produces field-grown trees and containerized plants. It has a series of containment/recycling reservoirs that capture rainwater and irrigation return water, together with wells of limited output. Water quantity is a more important issue for this nursery, but poor water quality has had some negative economic effects. Irrigation return water is filtered and sanitized with chlorine gas before being applied to plants via overhead and micro-irrigation systems. The agrochemical paclobutrazol was monitored for one year in the first operation and plant pathogens were qualified and quantified over two seasons for both production systems. The two operations employ very different water treatment systems based on their access to water, growing methods, land topography, and capital investment. Each operation has experienced different water quantity and quality vulnerabilities, and has addressed these threats using a variety of technologies and management techniques to reduce their impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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13 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessReview

Social and Economic Aspects of Water Use in Specialty Crop Production in the USA: A Review

by John C. Majsztrik, Bridget Behe, Charles R. Hall, Dewayne L. Ingram, Alexa J. Lamm, Laura A. Warner and Sarah A. White

Water 2019, 11(11), 2337; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112337 - 8 Nov 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2594

Abstract

Understanding human behavior is a complicated and complex endeavor. Academicians and practitioners need to understand the underlying beliefs and motivations to identify current trends and to effectively develop means of communication and education that encourage change in attitudes and behavior. Sociological research can provide information about how and why people make decisions; this information impacts the research and extension community, helping them formulate programs and present information in a way that increases adoption rates. Life cycle assessment can document how plant production impacts the environment. Production of ornamental plants (greenhouse, container, and field produced flowers trees and shrubs) accounted for 4.4% of the total annual on-farm income and 8.8% of the crop income produced in the United States in 2017, representing a substantial portion of farmgate receipts. Greenhouse and nursery growing operations can use this information to increase production and water application efficiency and decrease input costs. Information related to the environmental impacts of plant production, derived from life cycle assessment, can also inform consumer purchase decisions. Information from water footprint analysis quantifies the relative abundance and availability of water on a regional basis, helping growers understand water dynamics in their operation and informing consumer plant purchases based on water availability and conservation preference. Economics can motivate growers to adopt new practices based on whether they are saving or making money, and consumers modify product selection based on preference for how products are produced. Specialty crop producers, including nursery and greenhouse container operations, rely heavily on high quality water from surface and groundwater resources for crop production; but irrigation return flow from these operations can contribute to impairment of water resources. This review focuses on multiple facets of the socioeconomics of water use, reuse, and irrigation return flow management in nursery and greenhouse operations, focusing on grower and consumer perceptions of water; barriers to adoption of technology and innovations by growers; economic considerations for implementing new technologies; and understanding environmental constraints through life cycle assessment and water footprint analyses. Specialty crop producers can either voluntarily adapt practices gradually to benefit both economic and environmental sustainability or they may eventually be forced to change due to external factors (e.g., regulations). Producers need to have the most current information available to inform their decisions regarding water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Irrigation and Water Resources Management of Landscape Plants)

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