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Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2025) | Viewed by 16311

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Dr. Dharmappa Hagare

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School of Engineering, Design and Built Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
Interests: circular economy; wastewater recycling; food waste recycling and plastic waste recycling
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The world population is expected to reach about 10 billion by 2050, 70% of which is expected to live in urban areas. This further exacerbates already dire water availability issues in urban areas. In this context, the treatment and recycling of wastewater and stormwater treatment and harvesting play a critical role in providing water security to urban areas. In Australia, only about 15% of wastewater is recycled. Similar levels of recycling are currently being practiced around the world. To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals set out by the UN, particularly with respect to UN SDG 1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 12 and 13, these recycling rates need to be significantly increased. In light of this need for increased recycling of water and stormwater harvesting, this Special Issue is seeking submissions from leading researchers around the world who are working on innovative solutions for increasing the recycling of wastewater and stormwater harvesting. In this Special Issue, a special emphasis will be placed on urban water balance studies.

Dr. Dharma Hagare
Guest Editor

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Keywords

stormwater
wastewater
harvesting
treatment
reuse
nutrients
circular economy
recycle
economics
policy
urban
water balance

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 1481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Urban Lake Performance for Stormwater Harvesting: Insights from Two Lake Systems in Western Sydney, Australia

by Sai Kiran Natarajan, Dharmappa Hagare and Basant Maheshwari

Water 2025, 17(17), 2504; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17172504 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 575

Abstract

This study examines the impact of catchment characteristics and design on the performance of urban lakes in terms of water quality and stormwater harvesting potential. Two urban lake systems in Western Sydney, Australia, were selected for comparison: Wattle Grove Lake, a standalone constructed lake, and Woodcroft Lake, part of an integrated wetland–lake system. Both systems receive runoff from surrounding residential catchments of differing sizes and land uses. Over a one-year period, continuous monitoring was conducted to evaluate water quality parameters, including turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), nutrients (total nitrogen and total phosphorus), pH, dissolved oxygen, and biochemical oxygen demand. The results reveal that the lake with an integrated wetland significantly outperformed the standalone lake in terms of water quality, particularly in terms of turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS), achieving up to 70% reduction in TSS at the outlet compared to the inlet. The wetland served as an effective pre-treatment system, reducing pollutant loads before water entered the lake. Despite this, nutrient concentrations in both systems remained above the thresholds set by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) Guidelines (2000), indicating persistent challenges in nutrient retention. Notably, the larger catchment area and shallow depth of Wattle Grove Lake likely contributed to higher turbidity and nutrient levels, resulting from sediment resuspension and algal growth. Hydrological modelling using the Model for Urban Stormwater Improvement Conceptualisation (MUSIC) software (version 6) complemented the field data and highlighted the influence of catchment size, hydraulic retention time, and lake depth on pollutant removal efficiency. While both systems serve important environmental and recreational functions, the integrated wetland–lake system at Woodcroft demonstrated greater potential for safe stormwater harvesting and reuse within urban settings. The findings from the study offer practical insights for urban stormwater management and inform future designs that enhance resilience and water reuse potential in growing cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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17 pages, 1544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disinfection of Secondary Urban Wastewater Using Hydrogen Peroxide Combined with UV/Visible Radiation: Effect of Operating Conditions and Assessment of Microorganism Competition

by Ana L. R. Gomes, Sara Ribeirinho-Soares, Luis M. Madeira, Olga C. Nunes and Carmen S. D. Rodrigues

Water 2025, 17(4), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040596 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1025

Abstract

The growing and unprecedented water crisis leads to the need to find alternative water resources, and the reuse of treated urban wastewater is an excellent approach. Accordingly, in this work, the disinfection of a secondary effluent (W) discharged from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) by hydrogen peroxide combined with radiation (H₂O₂+UV/visible) was studied with the aim of obtaining treated water that can be reused. Firstly, the effect of hydrogen peroxide alone, radiation per se and the combined H₂O₂+UV/Visible process in the inactivation of enterobacteria were assessed. It was found that the oxidant alone is not efficient; the maximum inactivation is achieved when the oxidant and radiation are used simultaneously. For the first time, the effect of some operational parameters, namely the hydrogen peroxide concentration (between 50 and 125 mg/L), initial pH (from 5.0 to 7.0), temperature (between 15 and 25 °C), and radiation intensity (100 to 500 W/m²), on the efficiency of the disinfection process was assessed. When the process was carried out under the best operating conditions found ([H₂O₂] = 75 mg/L, pH = 5.0, T = 25 °C, and UV/visible light with I = 500 W/m²), total enterobacteria and total heterotrophs were inactivated and the abundance of the 16S rRNA, bla_TEM, qnrS, and intl1 genes was reduced. The cultivable microorganisms grew again after 3 days of storing the treated wastewater (TW), making it impossible to reuse such effluent after storage. Therefore, the potential capacity of a diverse bacterial community present in river water to inhibit the regrowth of potentially harmful bacteria present in the urban secondary wastewater after the application of the treatment process was also evaluated. To the authors’ knowledge, this has never been studied before. For this purpose, the TW was diluted with river water (R) at a volumetric percentage of 50/50—sample R+TW. It was found that, after storage, only the total heterotrophs grew, while the abundance of the targeted genes remained practically constant. The R+TW sample after storage met the legal limits for reuse in urban and agricultural applications. The results of this study suggest that the combination of the H₂O₂+UV/visible radiation treatment with dilution of the final treated effluent with natural surface water can contribute to reducing the burden of water scarcity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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20 pages, 7549 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geospatial Assessment of Stormwater Harvesting Potential in Uganda’s Cattle Corridor

by Geoffrey Ssekyanzi, Mirza Junaid Ahmad and Kyung-Sook Choi

Water 2025, 17(3), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17030349 - 26 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 957

Abstract

Freshwater scarcity remains a pressing global issue, exacerbated by inefficiencies in stormwater management during rainy seasons. Strategic stormwater harvesting offers a sustainable solution through runoff utilization for irrigation and livestock support. However, challenges such as limited farmer knowledge, difficult terrain, financial constraints, unpredictable weather, and scarce meteorological data hinder the accuracy of optimum stormwater harvesting sites. This study employs a GIS-based SCS-CN hydrological approach to address these issues, identifying suitable stormwater harvesting locations, estimating runoff volumes, and recommending site-specific storage structures. Using spatial datasets of daily rainfall (20 years), land use/land cover (LULC), digital elevation models (DEM), and soil data, the study evaluated 80 watersheds in Uganda’s cattle corridor. Annual runoff estimates within watersheds ranged from 62 million to 557 million m³, with 56 watersheds (70%) identified for multiple interventions such as farm ponds, check dams, and gully plugs. These structures are designed to enhance stormwater harvesting and utilization, improving water availability for livestock and crop production in a region characterized by water scarcity and erratic rainfall. The findings provide practical solutions for sustainable water management in drought-prone areas with limited meteorological data. This approach can be scaled to similar regions to enhance resilience in water-scarce landscapes. By offering actionable insights, this research supports farmers and water authorities in effectively allocating stormwater resources and implementing tailored harvesting strategies to bolster agriculture and livestock production in Uganda’s cattle corridor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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17 pages, 3974 KB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Low-Impact Development Techniques for Improved Water Management in Urban Areas

by Jaemoon Kim, Jaerock Park, Sungmin Cha and Soonchul Kwon

Water 2024, 16(19), 2837; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192837 - 6 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

Worldwide, the increase in impervious surfaces due to urbanization has led to significant water cycle issues such as groundwater depletion, urban heat islands, and flooding. To address these challenges, Low-Impact Development (LID) techniques are increasingly being applied in stormwater management. This study focuses on Ulsan, designated as a water cycle model city in South Korea, with a particular emphasis on the highly urbanized Okgyo drainage watershed. Using the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) version 5.1, long-term runoff simulations were conducted to evaluate the effects of LID implementation on water cycle change rates and recovery rates. The model incorporates detailed hydrological and hydraulic parameters, including inflow, runoff, infiltration, and evapotranspiration for six subcatchments within the watershed. The SWMM was calibrated and validated using 30 years of historical rainfall data (1987–2016) from the Ulsan weather station. Calibration and validation processes used the NRCS-CN (Curve Number) method to ensure accuracy in simulating runoff patterns and water balance. The study specifically evaluated the effectiveness of two LID techniques: bioretention and permeable pavements. Three scenarios were modeled: bioretention applied to 5% of the area, permeable pavements applied to 5% of the area, and a combined application of both techniques. The results showed that the combined scenario provided the best outcome, with a 7.80% reduction in surface runoff and a 14.56% improvement in water cycle health. The LID application scenario confirmed the potential to achieve the water cycle management target of handling 25.5 mm of rainfall. These findings demonstrate that the introduction of LID techniques in public spaces can significantly enhance water management. This research provides insights into effective water cycle management methods tailored to specific urban land uses, laying a foundation for future urban planning and sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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13 pages, 3229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Silica Sand-Based Pervious Bricks and Their Performance under Stormwater Treatment

by Meijuan Chen, Weiying Li, Zhiqiang Dong and Dawei Zhang

Water 2024, 16(18), 2625; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182625 - 16 Sep 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1898

Abstract

The acceleration of urbanization has disrupted natural water cycles, resulting in increased impervious urban surfaces and non-point source pollution from stormwater runoff. Addressing urban stormwater recharge has become crucial. This study introduces a novel silica sand-based permeable filtration material, investigating its surface characteristics, pore structure, permeability, and pollutant interception capabilities. The results demonstrate that hydrophilic binder coating modification of the permeable surface sand aggregate, combined with hydrophilic inorganic additives, having a porous structure with an average pore size of less than 50 μm and a porosity between 15% and 35%, significantly enhances surface hydrophilicity, achieving a permeation rate of up to 6.8 mL/(min·cm²). Moreover, it shows exceptional filtration and anti-clogging properties, achieving over 98% suspended solids interception and strong resistance to fouling. Dynamic biofilm formation experiments using simulated rain and domestic wastewater explore biofilm morphology and function on silica sand filtration well surfaces. Mature biofilms sustain COD removal efficiency exceeding 70%, with levels consistently below 50 mg/L, NH₄⁺ decreasing to 2 mg N/L, and total nitrogen maintained below 10 mg N/L. The system features anoxic, anoxic, and aerobic zones, fostering synergistic organic matter and nitrogen removal by diverse microorganisms, enhancing pollutant mitigation. Silica sand-based permeable filtration material effectively mitigates urban stormwater runoff pollutants—suspended solids, organic matter, and nitrogen—offering an innovative solution for sponge city development and rainwater resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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29 pages, 7298 KB

Open AccessArticle

Behaviour and Peculiarities of Oil Hydrocarbon Removal from Rain Garden Structures

by Maryna Kravchenko, Yuliia Trach, Roman Trach, Tetiana Tkachenko and Viktor Mileikovskyi

Water 2024, 16(13), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131802 - 26 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2327

Abstract

The expansion of impervious areas in the context of climate change leads to an increase in stormwater runoff. Runoff from roads, petrol stations, and service stations is the most common form of unintentional release of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs). Rain gardens are an important practice for removing PHs from stormwater runoff, but little data exist on the removal efficiency and behaviour of these substances within the system. The main objective of the study is to investigate the effectiveness of rain gardens in removing pollutants such as diesel fuel (DF) and used engine oil (UEO) in a laboratory setting, as well as to study the behaviours of these pollutants within the system. Eight experimental columns (7.164 dm³) were packed with soil (bulk density 1.48 kg/dm³), river sand (1.6 kg/dm³), and gravel. Plants of the Physocarpus opulifolia Diabolo species were planted in the topsoil to study their resistance to PHs. For 6 months, the columns were watered with model PHs followed by simulated rain events. The concentrations of PHs in the leachate and soil media of the columns were determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The results of HPLC indicated the absence of UEO and DF components in the leachates of all experimental columns, which suggested 100% removal of these substances from stormwater. The chromatography results showed that 95% of the modelled PHs were retained in the surface layer of the soil medium due to the sorption process, which led to a change in hydraulic conductivity over time. Recommendations are proposed to increase the service life of rain gardens designed to filter PHs from stormwater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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21 pages, 8777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting and Greywater Reuse in a Multifamily Building

by Enedir Ghisi and Douglas Ancelmo Freitas

Water 2024, 16(11), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111580 - 31 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2533

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the financial feasibility of rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse in a multifamily building located in Florianópolis, Brazil. A building, consisting of two blocks with 60 flats each, was chosen to obtain data about the number of residents, building characteristics, potable water consumption, and rainwater and greywater demands (obtained by means of questionnaires and water measurements). The financial feasibility analyses considered rainwater and greywater systems separately and together. The impact on the urban stormwater drainage system was evaluated through the reduction of stormwater runoff. The energy consumption in the operational phase of each system was estimated through the amount of energy consumed by the motor pumps to supply one cubic meter of water. The potential for potable water savings through the use of rainwater—that supplies water for washing machines—was approximately 6.9%. The potential for potable water savings through the use of greywater—that supplies water to toilets—was approximately 5.7%. Both systems were feasible. The payback period for rainwater harvesting systems ranged from 57 to 76 months. For greywater systems, the payback period ranged from 127 to 159 months. When considering both systems working together, the payback period ranged from 89 to 132 months. The rainwater harvesting system can reduce 11.8% the stormwater volume destined to the urban stormwater drainage system in relation to the current contribution volume. Energy consumption was approximately 0.56 kWh/m³ of treated water for the rainwater harvesting system and 0.89 kWh/m³ of treated water for the greywater system. Rainwater and greywater were considered economically feasible, especially for higher inflation scenarios. Furthermore, such systems are interesting alternatives in terms of impacts considering urban drainage and energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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15 pages, 10305 KB

Open AccessArticle

Storage Scale Assessment of a Low-Impact Development System in a Sponge City

by Mingkun Xie, Dongxu He, Zengchuan Dong and Yuning Cheng

Water 2024, 16(10), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101427 - 17 May 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2013

Abstract

A sponge city is an established urban stormwater management approach that effectively reduces urban runoff and pollutant discharges. In order to plan and design, estimate costs, and evaluate the performance of urban sponge city systems, it is essential to calculate the storage scale. In this context, a sponge city storage scale and calculation method based on a multifactor spatial overlay was designed, utilising the starting area of the Dafeng Hi-tech Development Zone in Yancheng City, China, as an illustrative example. The indicators for assessing the impact of sponge city systems on river plain networks are constructed based on four aspects: land planning, building density, water surface rate and green space rate. The relative importance of each indicator was determined based on the necessity of controlling runoff from land parcels and the appropriateness of facility construction. The annual runoff control rate of the 39 low-impact development control units in the study area was calculated using ArcGIS through multifactor spatial overlay mapping and weighting. The results showed that (1) the Geographic Information System (GIS)overlay technology can effectively assist in the decomposition of LID scales; (2) data can be derived, including the design storage volume and other basic control scale indicators for each unit. The study results are expected to serve as a reference for the preparation of special low-impact development plans in the river plain network area of China and the promotion of the construction of a sustainable blue–green system in the city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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Review

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66 pages, 6944 KB

Open AccessReview

Towards Resilient Cities: Systematic Review of the Literature on the Use of AI to Optimize Water Harvesting and Mitigate Scarcity

by Victor Martin Maldonado Benitez, Oswaldo Morales Matamoros and Jesús Jaime Moreno Escobar

Water 2025, 17(13), 1978; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131978 - 30 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1469

Abstract

This article develops a systematic literature review with a focus on the optimization of water harvesting through the use of artificial intelligence (AI) applications. These are framed in the search for sustainable solutions to the growing problem of water scarcity in urban environments. The analysis is oriented towards urban resilience and smart water management, incorporating interdisciplinary approaches such as systems thinking to understand the complex dynamics involved in water governance. The results indicate a growing trend in the utilisation of AI in various domains, including demand forecasting, leak detection, and catchment infrastructure optimization. Additionally, the findings suggest its application in water resilience modelling and adaptive urban planning. The text goes on to examine the challenges associated with the integration of technology in urban contexts, including the critical aspects of governance and regulation of AI, water consumption, energy and carbon emissions from the use of this technology, as well as the regulation of water management in digital transformation scenarios. The study identifies the most representative patents that combat the problem, and in parallel proposes lines of research aimed at strengthening the water resilience and sustainability of cities. The strategic role of AI as a catalyst for innovation in the transition towards smarter, more integrated and adaptive water management systems is also highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Harvesting, and Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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