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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water, Agriculture and Aquaculture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 44151

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Prof. Dr. George Kargas

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Guest Editor

Department of Natural Resources Management and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: soil physics; flow and transport in soils; dielectric sensors; salinity; irrigation and drainage
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Prof. Dr. Petros Kerkides

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Guest Editor

Department of Natural Resources Management and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: soil physics; agricultural meteorology; irrigation and drainage; salt transport in soils
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Dr. Paraskevi Londra

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Assistant Professor, Department of Natural Resources Development and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 11855 Athens, Greece
Interests: soil physics; plant soil–water interaction; flow and transport in soils; horticultural substrates; vadose zone hydrology; water resource management
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Dear Colleagues,

In irrigated agriculture, the study of the various ways water infiltrates into the soils is necessary. In this respect, soil hydraulic properties, such as moisture retention curve (SMRC), diffusivity, and hydraulic conductivity functions, play a crucial role, as they control the infiltration process and the soil water and solute movement.

Modeling and flow simulation of soil water movement depends on the appropriate description of the hydraulic properties and their measurements (in situ and in the laboratory), upon which these are provided. A comprehensive review of the recent developments in the various aspects of soil water movement in irrigated agriculture is welcome.

The above may be presented in a number of research topics that tackle one or more of the following challenges:

Irrigation systems and one-, two-, and three-dimensional soil water movement.
One- and three-dimensional infiltration analysis from a disc infiltrometer.
Dielectric devices for monitoring soil water content and methods for assessment of soil water pressure head.
Soil hydraulic properties and their temporal and spatial variability under the irrigation situations.
Saturated–unsaturated flow model in irrigated soils.
Soil water redistribution and the role of hysteresis.
Soil water movement and drainage in irrigated agriculture.
Salt accumulation, soil salinization, and soil salinity assessment.
Effect of salts on hydraulic conductivity.
Soil conditioners and mulches which change the upper soil hydraulic properties and their effect on soil water movement.

Prof. Dr. George Kargas
Emeritus Prof. Dr. Petros Kerkides
Dr. Paraskevi Londra
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Infiltration process
hydraulic properties
water and salt transport in irrigated soils
modeling water flow
disc infiltrometer
dielectric sensors

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Related Special Issues

Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture Ⅱ in Water (8 articles)
Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture III in Water (2 articles)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

4 pages, 197 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture

by George Kargas, Petros Kerkides and Paraskevi A. Londra

Water 2023, 15(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15010127 - 29 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1676

Abstract

In irrigated agriculture, the study of the various ways water infiltrates into the soils is necessary [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Estimation Using Artificial Neural Networks

by Josué Trejo-Alonso, Carlos Fuentes, Carlos Chávez, Antonio Quevedo, Alfonso Gutierrez-Lopez and Brandon González-Correa

Water 2021, 13(5), 705; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050705 - 5 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

In the present work, we construct several artificial neural networks (varying the input data) to calculate the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K

_{S}

) using a database with 900 measured samples obtained from the Irrigation District 023, in San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, Mexico. [...] Read more.

In the present work, we construct several artificial neural networks (varying the input data) to calculate the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K

_{S}

) using a database with 900 measured samples obtained from the Irrigation District 023, in San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, Mexico. All of them were constructed using two hidden layers, a back-propagation algorithm for the learning process, and a logistic function as a nonlinear transfer function. In order to explore different arrays for neurons into hidden layers, we performed the bootstrap technique for each neural network and selected the one with the least Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) value. We also compared these results with pedotransfer functions and another neural networks from the literature. The results show that our artificial neural networks obtained from 0.0459 to 0.0413 in the RMSE measurement, and 0.9725 to 0.9780 for R

^{2}

, which are in good agreement with other works. We also found that reducing the amount of the input data offered us better results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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17 pages, 5305 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Infiltration Characteristics and Spatiotemporal Distribution of Soil Moisture in Layered Soil under Vertical Tube Irrigation

by Cheng Wang, Dan Bai, Yibo Li, Xinduan Wang, Zhen Pei and Zuochao Dong

Water 2020, 12(10), 2725; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102725 - 29 Sep 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

The limited quantity of irrigation water in Xinjiang has hindered agricultural development in the region and water-saving irrigation technologies are crucial to addressing this water shortage. Vertical tube irrigation, a type of subsurface irrigation, is a new water-efficient technology. In this study, field and laboratory experiments were conducted to analyze (1) the infiltration characteristics and spatiotemporal distribution of moisture in layered soil and (2) the water-saving mechanism of vertical tube irrigation. In the field experiments, we analyzed jujube yield, irrigation water productivity (IWP), and soil moisture in the jujube root zone. In the laboratory irrigation experiments, two soil types (silty and sandy loam) were selected to investigate homogeneous and layered soil, respectively. Cumulative infiltration, wetting body, and soil water moisture distribution were also analyzed. Relative to surface drip irrigation, vertical tube irrigation resulted in slightly lower jujube yields but higher savings in water use (47–68%) and improved IWP. The laboratory experiments demonstrated that layered soil had less cumulative infiltration, a larger ellipsoid wetted body, slower vertical wetting front migration (hindered by layer interface), and faster horizontal wetting front migration than homogenous soil had. The irrigation amount for vertical tube irrigation decreased in layered soil, and water content increased at the layer interface. Vertical tube irrigation in layered soil facilitates the retention of water in the root zone, prevents deep leakage, reduces irrigation amount, and improves the IWP of jujube trees. This study aids the popularization and application of vertical tube irrigation technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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14 pages, 2778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytic Representation of the Optimal Flow for Gravity Irrigation

by Carlos Fuentes and Carlos Chávez

Water 2020, 12(10), 2710; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102710 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2284

Abstract

The aim of this study is the deduction of an analytic representation of the optimal irrigation flow depending on the border length, hydrodynamic properties, and soil moisture constants, with high values of the coefficient of uniformity. In order not to be limited to the simplified models, the linear relationship of the numerical simulation with the hydrodynamic model, formed by the coupled equations of Barré de Saint-Venant and Richards, was established. Sample records for 10 soil types of contrasting texture were used and were applied to three water depths. On the other hand, the analytical representation of the linear relationship using the Parlange theory of infiltration proposed for integrating the differential equation of one-dimensional vertical infiltration was established. The obtained formula for calculating the optimal unitary discharge is a function of the border strip length, the net depth, the characteristic infiltration parameters (capillary forces, sorptivity, and gravitational forces), the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and a shape parameter of the hydrodynamic characteristics. The good accordance between the numerical and analytical results allows us to recommend the formula for the design of gravity irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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12 pages, 908 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of Soil EC Values from Methods Based on 1:1 and 1:5 Soil to Water Ratios and EC_e from Saturated Paste Extract Based Method

by George Kargas, Paraskevi Londra and Anastasia Sgoubopoulou

Water 2020, 12(4), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041010 - 2 Apr 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6455

Abstract

The present study investigates the effect of three different methods of obtaining 1:1 and 1:5 soil-over-water mass ratios (soil:water) extracts for soil electrical conductivity (EC) measurements (EC_1:1, EC_1:5). On the same soil samples, also the electrical conductivity of the saturated paste extract (EC_e) was determined and the relationships between EC_e and each of the three of EC_1:1 and EC_1:5 values were examined. The soil samples used were collected from three areas over Greece (Laconia, Argolida and Kos) and had EC_e values ranging from 0.611 to 25.9 dS m⁻¹. From the results, it was shown that for soils with EC_e < 3 dS m⁻¹ the higher EC values were obtained by the method where the suspension remained at rest for 23 hours and then shaken mechanically for 1 h. On the contrary, no differences were observed among the three methods for soils with EC_e > 3 dS m⁻¹. Also, in the case of EC_1:5, the optimal times for equilibration were much longer when EC_e < 3 dS m⁻¹. Across all soils, the relationships between EC_e and each of three methods of obtaining EC_1:1 and EC_1:5 were strongly linear (0.953 < R² < 0.991 and 0.63 < RMSE < 1.27 dS m⁻¹). Taking into account the threshold of EC_e = 3 dS m⁻¹, different EC_e = f(EC_1:5) linear relationships were obtained. Although the linear model gave high values of R² and RMSE for EC_e < 3 dS m⁻¹, the quadratic model resulted in better R² and RMSE values for all methods examined. Correspondingly, in the 1:1 method, two of the three methods used exhibited similar slope values of the linear relationships independent of EC_e value (EC_e < 3 or EC_e > 3 dS m⁻¹), while one method (23 h rest and then shaken mechanically for 1 hour) showed significant differences in the slopes of the linear relationships between the two ranges of EC_e. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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18 pages, 1648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Irrigation Treatment on the Growth of Lavender Species in an Extensive Green Roof System

by Angeliki T. Paraskevopoulou, Panagiotis Tsarouchas, Paraskevi A. Londra and Athanasios P. Kamoutsis

Water 2020, 12(3), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030863 - 19 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3465

Abstract

In green roofs, the use of plant species that withstand dry arid environmental conditions and have reduced water requirements is recommended. The current study presents the effect of irrigation amount on the growth of four different species of lavender; Lavandula angustifolia, Lavandula dentata var. candicans, Lavandula dentata var. dentata, and Lavandula stoechas established on an extensive green roof system and used in urban agriculture. Two irrigation treatments (high and low) determined by the substrate hydraulic properties were applied. Plant growth studied at regular intervals included measurements of plant height, shoot canopy diameter, plant growth index, shoot dry weight and stomatal conductance. The results were consistent and showed that low irrigation reduced plant growth. With the exception of L. stoechas, the appearance of plants watered with the low irrigation treatment was satisfactory, and their use under low water amount irrigation is supported. Interspecies differences among lavender species were present in both irrigation treatments. Overall, L. dentata var. candicans showed the greatest growth, followed in descending order by L. dentata var. dentata and L. angustifolia. In parallel, for stomatal conductance, L. dentata var. candicans showed the lowest value, similar to L. dentata var. dentata, and L. angustifolia the largest. Differences in plant characteristics and size among the latter three species can be considered in the design of extensive green roof systems. The use of substrate hydraulic properties was shown to be important for irrigation management on extensive green roof systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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18 pages, 1154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Salinity on the Growth of Lavender Species

by Angeliki T. Paraskevopoulou, Anna Kontodaimon Karantzi, Georgios Liakopoulos, Paraskevi A. Londra and Konstantinos Bertsouklis

Water 2020, 12(3), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030618 - 25 Feb 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4662

Abstract

Long term degradation of water quality from natural resources has led to the use of alternative water resources for irrigation that are saline. Saline water irrigation in floriculture for the production of nursery crops requires an understanding of plant response. The pot growth of four lavender species (Lavandula angustifolia, Lavandula dentata var. dentata, Lavandula dentata var. candicans and Lavandula stoechas) irrigated with water containing different concentrations of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 100 and 200 mM) was investigated under greenhouse conditions. Overall results of different plant growth variables were consistent, showing a significant decrease at 100 and 200 mM NaCl. All lavender species showed signs of salinity stress that included chlorosis, followed by leaf and stem necrosis at NaCl concentrations greater than 50 mM. L. dentata var. dentata showed the greatest plant growth followed in descending order by L. dentata var. candicans, L. stoechas and L. angustifolia. Despite greater growth of L. dentata var. dentata, the appearance of L. dentata var. candicans was “healthier”. In areas with saline irrigation water, L. dentata var. dentata and L. dentata var. candicans are proposed for the production of lavender nursery crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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14 pages, 1851 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Effect of Soil Iron on the Estimation of Soil Water Content Using Dielectric Sensors

by George Kargas, Paraskevi Londra, Marianthi Anastasatou and Nick Moustakas

Water 2020, 12(2), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020598 - 22 Feb 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3453

Abstract

Nowadays, the estimation of volumetric soil water content (θ) through apparent dielectric permittivity (ε_a) is the most widely used method. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the high iron content of two sandy loam soils on estimating their water content using two dielectric sensors. These sensors are the WET sensor operating at 20 MHz and the ML2 sensor operating at 100 MHz. Experiments on specific soil columns, in the laboratory, by mixing different amounts of water in the soils to obtain a range of θ values under constant temperature conditions were conducted. Analysis of the results showed that both sensors, based on manufacturer calibration, led to overestimation of θ. This overestimation is due to the high measured values of ε_a by both sensors used. The WET sensor, operating at a lower frequency and being strongly affected by soil characteristics, showed the greatest overestimation. The difference of ε_a values between the two sensors ranged from 14 to 19 units at the maximum actual soil water content (θ_m). Compared to the Topp equation, the WET sensor measures 2.3 to 2.8 fold higher value of ε_a. From the results, it was shown that the relationship θ_m-ε_a^0.5 remained linear even in the case of these soils with high iron content and the multi-point calibration (CALALL) is a good option where individual calibration is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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21 pages, 5424 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Spring Wheat Irrigation Schedule in Shallow Groundwater Area of Jiefangzha Region in Hetao Irrigation District

by Zhigong Peng, Baozhong Zhang, Jiabing Cai, Zheng Wei, He Chen and Yu Liu

Water 2019, 11(12), 2627; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122627 - 13 Dec 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2956

Abstract

Due to the large spatial variation of groundwater depth, it is very difficult to determine suitable irrigation schedules for crops in shallow groundwater area. A zoning optimization method of irrigation schedule is proposed here, which can solve the problem of the connection between suitable irrigation schedules and different groundwater depths in shallow groundwater areas. The main results include: (1) Taking the annual mean groundwater depth 2.5 m as the dividing line, the shallow groundwater areas were categorized into two irrigation schedule zones. (2) On the principle of maximizing the yield, the optimized irrigation schedule for spring wheat in each zone was obtained. When the groundwater depth was greater than 2.5 m, two rounds of irrigation were chosen at the tillering–shooting stage and the shooting–heading stage with the irrigation quota at 300 mm. When the groundwater depth was less than 2.5 m, two rounds of irrigation were chosen at the tillering–shooting stage, and one round at the shooting–heading stage, with the irrigation quota at 240 mm. The main water-saving effect of the optimized irrigation schedule is that the yield, the soil water use rate, and the water use productivity increased, while the irrigation amount and the ineffective seepage decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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10 pages, 3022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Flux–Concentration Relation for Horizontal Flow in Soils

by George Kargas, Paraskevi Londra and Petros Kerkides

Water 2019, 11(12), 2442; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122442 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2992

Abstract

The objective of the present work is to investigate the flux–concentration (F(Θ)) relation, where Θ is the normalized soil volumetric water content for the case of one-dimensional horizontal flow, subject to constant concentration conditions. More specifically, the possibility of describing F(Θ) by an equation of the form F(Θ) = 1 − (1 − Θ)^p⁺¹ is examined. Parameter p is estimated from curve-fitting of the experimentally obtained λ(Θ) data to an analytic expression of the form (1 − Θ)^p where λ is the well-known Boltzmann transformation λ = xt^−0.5 (x = distance, t = time). The results show that the equation of (1 − Θ)^p form can satisfactorily describe the λ(Θ) relation for the four porous media tested. The proposed F(Θ) function was compared with the limiting F(Θ) function for linear and Green–Ampt soils and to the actual F(Θ) function. From the results, it was shown that the proposed F(Θ) function gave reasonably accurate results in all cases. Moreover, the analytical expression of the soil water diffusivity (D(Θ)) function, as it was obtained by using the equation for λ(Θ) of the form (1 − Θ)^p, appears to be very close to the experimental D(Θ) data (root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.593 m²min⁻¹). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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14 pages, 2287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics and Distribution of Soil Salinity under Long-Term Mulched Drip Irrigation in an Arid Area of Northwestern China

by Zilong Guan, Zhifeng Jia, Zhiqiang Zhao and Qiying You

Water 2019, 11(6), 1225; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061225 - 12 Jun 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3506

Abstract

Mulched drip irrigation has been widely used in agricultural planting in arid and semi-arid regions. The dynamics and distribution of soil salinity under mulched drip irrigation greatly affect crop growth and yield. However, there are still different views on the distribution and dynamics of soil salinity under long-term mulched drip irrigation due to complex factors (climate, groundwater, irrigation, and soil). Therefore, the soil salinity of newly reclaimed salt wasteland was monitored for 9 years (2008–2016), and the effects of soil water on soil salinity distribution under mulched drip irrigation have also been explored. The results indicated that the soil salinity decreased sharply in 3–4 years of implementation of mulched drip irrigation, and then began to fluctuate to different degrees and showed slight re-accumulation. During the growth period, soil salinity was relatively high at pre-sowing, and after a period of decline soil salinity tends to increase in the late harvest period. The vertical distribution of soil texture had a significant effect on the distribution of soil salinity. Salt accumulated near the soil layer transiting from coarse soil to fine soil. After a single irrigation, the soil water content in the 30–70 cm layer under the cotton plant undergoes a ‘high–low–high’ change pattern, and the soil salt firstly moved to the deep layer (below 70 cm), and then showed upward migration tendency with the weakening of irrigation water infiltration. The results may contribute to the scientific extension of mulched drip irrigation and the farmland management under long-term mulched drip irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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15 pages, 4374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Fertilizer Transport for Various Fertigation Scenarios under Drip Irrigation

by Romysaa Elasbah, Tarek Selim, Ahmed Mirdan and Ronny Berndtsson

Water 2019, 11(5), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050893 - 28 Apr 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5030

Abstract

Frequent application of nitrogen fertilizers through irrigation is likely to increase the concentration of nitrate in groundwater. In this study, the HYDRUS-2D/3D model was used to simulate fertilizer movement through the soil under surface (DI) and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) with 10 and 20 cm emitter depths for tomato growing in three different typical and representative Egyptian soil types, namely sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam. Ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers were considered during simulation. Laboratory experiments were conducted to estimate the soils’ adsorption behavior. The impact of soil hydraulic properties and fertigation strategies on fertilizer distribution and use efficiency were investigated. Results showed that for DI, the percentage of nitrogen accumulated below the zone of maximum root density was 33%, 28%, and 24% for sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam soil, respectively. For SDI with 10 and 20 cm emitter depths, it was 34%, 29%, and 26%, and 44%, 37%, and 35%, respectively. Results showed that shallow emitter depth produced maximum nitrogen use efficiency varying from 27 to 37%, regardless of fertigation strategy. Therefore, subsurface drip irrigation with a shallow emitter depth is recommended for medium-textured soils. Moreover, the study showed that to reduce potential fertilizer leaching, fertilizers should be added at the beginning of irrigation events for SDI and at the end of irrigation events for DI. As nitrate uptake rate and leaching are affected by soil’s adsorption, it is important to determine the adsorption coefficient for nitrate before planting, as it will help to precisely assign application rates. This will lead to improve nutrient uptake and minimize potential leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of the Soil Water Movement in Irrigated Agriculture)

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