Remote Sensing

2550 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Integration of Aerial Thermal Imagery, LiDAR Data and Ground Surveys for Surface Temperature Mapping in Urban Environments

by Emanuele Mandanici, Paolo Conte and Valentina A. Girelli

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100880 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8115

Abstract

A single-band surface temperature retrieval method is proposed, aiming at achieving a better accuracy by exploiting the integration of aerial thermal images with LiDAR data and ground surveys. LiDAR data allow the generation of a high resolution digital surface model and a detailed [...] Read more.

A single-band surface temperature retrieval method is proposed, aiming at achieving a better accuracy by exploiting the integration of aerial thermal images with LiDAR data and ground surveys. LiDAR data allow the generation of a high resolution digital surface model and a detailed modeling of the Sky-View Factor (SVF). Ground surveys of surface temperature and emissivity, instead, are used to estimate the atmospheric parameters involved in the model (through a bounded least square adjustment) and for a first assessment of the accuracy of the results. The RMS of the difference between the surface temperatures computed from the model and measured on the check sites ranges between 0.8 °C and 1.0 °C, depending on the algorithm used to calculate the SVF. Results are in general better than the ones obtained without considering SVF and prove the effectiveness of the integration of different data sources. The proposed approach has the advantage of avoiding the modeling of the atmosphere conditions, which is often difficult to achieve with the desired accuracy; on the other hand, it is highly dependent on the accuracy of the data measured on the ground. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Sensor and Multi-Data Integration in Remote Sensing)

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Graphical abstract

9670 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Estimation of Paddy Rice Variables with a Modified Water Cloud Model and Improved Polarimetric Decomposition Using Multi-Temporal RADARSAT-2 Images

by Zhi Yang, Kun Li, Yun Shao, Brian Brisco and Long Liu

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100878 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 8539

Abstract

Rice growth monitoring is very important as rice is one of the staple crops of the world. Rice variables as quantitative indicators of rice growth are critical for farming management and yield estimation, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has great advantages for monitoring [...] Read more.

Rice growth monitoring is very important as rice is one of the staple crops of the world. Rice variables as quantitative indicators of rice growth are critical for farming management and yield estimation, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has great advantages for monitoring rice variables due to its all-weather observation capability. In this study, eight temporal RADARSAT-2 full-polarimetric SAR images were acquired during rice growth cycle and a modified water cloud model (MWCM) was proposed, in which the heterogeneity of the rice canopy in the horizontal direction and its phenological changes were considered when the double-bounce scattering between the rice canopy and the underlying surface was firstly considered as well. Then, three scattering components from an improved polarimetric decomposition were coupled with the MWCM, instead of the backscattering coefficients. Using a genetic algorithm, eight rice variables were estimated, such as the leaf area index (LAI), rice height (h), and the fresh and dry biomass of ears (F_e and D_e). The accuracy validation showed the MWCM was suitable for the estimation of rice variables during the whole growth season. The validation results showed that the MWCM could predict the temporal behaviors of the rice variables well during the growth cycle (R² > 0.8). Compared with the original water cloud model (WCM), the relative errors of rice variables with the MWCM were much smaller, especially in the vegetation phase (approximately 15% smaller). Finally, it was discussed that the MWCM could be used, theoretically, for extensive applications since the empirical coefficients in the MWCM were determined in general cases, but more applications of the MWCM are necessary in future work. Full article

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13628 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

InSAR Observation and Numerical Modeling of the Earth-Dam Displacement of Shuibuya Dam (China)

by Wei Zhou, Shaolin Li, Zhiwei Zhou and Xiaolin Chang

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100877 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 7418

Abstract

How to accurately determine the mechanical parameters of rockfill is one of the key issues of concrete-face rockfill dams. Parameter back-analysis using internal or external monitoring data has been proven to be an efficient way to solve this problem. However, traditional internal or [...] Read more.

How to accurately determine the mechanical parameters of rockfill is one of the key issues of concrete-face rockfill dams. Parameter back-analysis using internal or external monitoring data has been proven to be an efficient way to solve this problem. However, traditional internal or external monitoring methods have limitations in efficiency and long-term monitoring. In this paper, the displacement of the Shuibuya concrete-face rockfill dam is monitored by the space-borne Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) time series method. Using the InSAR results and the finite element method, the back-analysis of the mechanical parameters of the rockfill dam is investigated, and the back-analysis results of InSAR and levelling are compared. A high correlation of 0.99 for the displacement results generated from InSAR and the levelling offers good agreement between the two methods. The agreement provides confidence that the external InSAR monitoring measurement allows producing a reliable back-analysis and captures the displacement properties of the dam. Based on the identified parameters from the InSAR results, the dam displacement is predicted. The prediction of the maximum settlement of the dam is 2.332 m by the end of 2020, according to the dam displacement characteristics, which agrees well with the results derived from the recorded internal monitoring data. Therefore, the external monitoring results from the InSAR observation can be used as a supplement for traditional monitoring methods to analyse the parameters of the dam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for Geohazards)

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10856 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Influences of Climate Change and Human Activities on Vegetation Dynamics in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

by Ke Huang, Yangjian Zhang, Juntao Zhu, Yaojie Liu, Jiaxing Zu and Jing Zhang

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100876 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 254 | Viewed by 14165

Abstract

Grasslands occupy nearly three quarters of the land surface of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (QTP) and play a critical role in regulating the ecological functions of the QTP. Ongoing climate change and human interference have greatly affected grasslands on the QTP. Differentiating human-induced and [...] Read more.

Grasslands occupy nearly three quarters of the land surface of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (QTP) and play a critical role in regulating the ecological functions of the QTP. Ongoing climate change and human interference have greatly affected grasslands on the QTP. Differentiating human-induced and climate-driven vegetation changes is vital for both ecological understanding and the management of husbandry. In this study, we employed statistical analysis of annual records, various sources of remote sensing data, and an ecosystem process model to calculate the relative contribution of climate and human activities to vegetation vigor on the QTP. The temperature, precipitation and the intensity and spatial pattern of livestock grazing differed between the periods prior to and after the year 2000, which led to different vegetation dynamics. Overall, increased temperature and enhanced precipitation favored vegetation growth. However, their combined effects exhibited strong spatial heterogeneity. Specifically, increased temperature restrained vegetation growth in dry steppe regions during a period of slightly increasing precipitation from 1986 to 2000 and in meadow regions during a period of precipitation decline during 2000–2011, thereby making precipitation a dominant factor. An increase in precipitation tended to enhance vegetation growth in wet meadow regions during warm periods, and temperature was the limiting factor in Tibet during dry periods. The dominant role played by climate and human activities differed with location and targeted time period. Areas dominated by human activities are much smaller than those dominated by climate. The effects of grazing on grassland pasture were more obvious under unfavorable climate conditions than under suitable ones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Land Degradation and Drivers of Change)

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17531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Satellite Survey of Inner Seas: Oil Pollution in the Black and Caspian Seas

by Marina Mityagina and Olga Lavrova

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 875; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100875 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 12258

Abstract

The paper discusses our studies of oil pollution in the Black and Caspian Seas. The research was based on a multi-sensor approach on satellite survey data. A combined analysis of oil film signatures in satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and optical imagery was [...] Read more.

The paper discusses our studies of oil pollution in the Black and Caspian Seas. The research was based on a multi-sensor approach on satellite survey data. A combined analysis of oil film signatures in satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and optical imagery was performed. Maps of oil spills detected in satellite imagery of the whole aquatic area of the Black Sea and the Middle and the Southern Caspian Sea are created. Areas of the heaviest pollution are outlined. It is shown that the main types of sea surface oil pollution are ship discharges and natural marine hydrocarbon seepages. For each type of pollution and each sea, regions of regular pollution occurrence were determined, polluted areas were estimated, and specific manifestation features were revealed. Long-term observations demonstrate that in recent years, illegal wastewater discharges into the Black Sea have become very common, which raises serious environmental issues. Manifestations of seabed hydrocarbon seepages were also detected in the Black Sea, primarily in its eastern part. The patterns of surface oil pollution of the Caspian Sea differ considerably from those observed in the Black Sea. They are largely determined by presence of big seabed oil and gas deposits. The dependence of surface oil SAR signatures on wind/wave conditions is discussed. The impact of dynamic and circulation processes on oil films drift and spread is investigated. A large amount of the data available allowed us to make some generalizations and obtain statistically significant results on spatial and temporal variability of various surface film manifestations.The examples and numerical data we provide on ship spills and seabed seepages reflect the influence of the pollution on the sea environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing and Oil Spill Response: Leveraging New Technologies to Safeguard the Environment)

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9363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid-SAR Technique: Joint Analysis Using Phase-Based and Amplitude-Based Methods for the Xishancun Giant Landslide Monitoring

by Tengteng Qu, Ping Lu, Chun Liu, Hangbin Wu, Xiaohang Shao, Hong Wan, Nan Li and Rongxing Li

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100874 - 23 Oct 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6784

Abstract

Early detection and early warning are of great importance in giant landslide monitoring because of the unexpectedness and concealed nature of large-scale landslides. In China, the western mountainous areas are prone to landslides and feature many giant complex landslides, especially following the Wenchuan [...] Read more.

Early detection and early warning are of great importance in giant landslide monitoring because of the unexpectedness and concealed nature of large-scale landslides. In China, the western mountainous areas are prone to landslides and feature many giant complex landslides, especially following the Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008. This work concentrates on a new technique, known as the “hybrid-SAR technique”, that combines both phase-based and amplitude-based methods to detect and monitor large-scale landslides in Li County, Sichuan Province, southwestern China. This work aims to develop a robust methodological approach to promptly identify diverse landslides with different deformation magnitudes, sliding modes and slope geometries, even when the available satellite data are limited. The phase-based and amplitude-based techniques are used to obtain the landslide displacements from six TerraSAR-X Stripmap descending scenes acquired from November 2014 to March 2015. Furthermore, the application circumstances and influence factors of hybrid-SAR are evaluated according to four aspects: (1) quality of terrain visibility to the radar sensor; (2) landslide deformation magnitude and different sliding mode; (3) impact of dense vegetation cover; and (4) sliding direction sensitivity. The results achieved from hybrid-SAR are consistent with in situ measurements. This new hybrid-SAR technique for complex giant landslide research successfully identified representative movement areas, e.g., an extremely slow earthflow and a creeping region with a displacement rate of 1 cm per month and a typical rotational slide with a displacement rate of 2–3 cm per month downwards and towards the riverbank. Hybrid-SAR allows for a comprehensive and preliminary identification of areas with significant movement and provides reliable data support for the forecasting and monitoring of landslides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for Geohazards)

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10220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Separability Analysis of Sentinel-2A Multi-Spectral Instrument (MSI) Data for Burned Area Discrimination

by Haiyan Huang, David P. Roy, Luigi Boschetti, Hankui K. Zhang, Lin Yan, Sanath Sathyachandran Kumar, Jose Gomez-Dans and Jian Li

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100873 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 136 | Viewed by 16787

Abstract

Biomass burning is a global phenomenon and systematic burned area mapping is of increasing importance for science and applications. With high spatial resolution and novelty in band design, the recently launched Sentinel-2A satellite provides a new opportunity for moderate spatial resolution burned area [...] Read more.

Biomass burning is a global phenomenon and systematic burned area mapping is of increasing importance for science and applications. With high spatial resolution and novelty in band design, the recently launched Sentinel-2A satellite provides a new opportunity for moderate spatial resolution burned area mapping. This study examines the performance of the Sentinel-2A Multi Spectral Instrument (MSI) bands and derived spectral indices to differentiate between unburned and burned areas. For this purpose, five pairs of pre-fire and post-fire top of atmosphere (TOA reflectance) and atmospherically corrected (surface reflectance) images were studied. The pixel values of locations that were unburned in the first image and burned in the second image, as well as the values of locations that were unburned in both images which served as a control, were compared and the discrimination of individual bands and spectral indices were evaluated using parametric (transformed divergence) and non-parametric (decision tree) approaches. Based on the results, the most suitable MSI bands to detect burned areas are the 20 m near-infrared, short wave infrared and red-edge bands, while the performance of the spectral indices varied with location. The atmospheric correction only significantly influenced the separability of the visible wavelength bands. The results provide insights that are useful for developing Sentinel-2 burned area mapping algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Sensors, Multi-Sensor Integration, Large Volumes: New Opportunities and Challenges in Forest Fire Research)

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3971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interannual Variability in Dry Mixed-Grass Prairie Yield: A Comparison of MODIS, SPOT, and Field Measurements

by Donald C. Wehlage, John A. Gamon, Donnette Thayer and David V. Hildebrand

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 872; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100872 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6837

Abstract

Remote sensing is often used to assess rangeland condition and biophysical parameters across large areas. In particular, the relationship between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and above-ground biomass can be used to assess rangeland primary productivity (seasonal carbon gain or above-ground biomass [...] Read more.

Remote sensing is often used to assess rangeland condition and biophysical parameters across large areas. In particular, the relationship between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and above-ground biomass can be used to assess rangeland primary productivity (seasonal carbon gain or above-ground biomass “yield”). We evaluated the NDVI–yield relationship for a southern Alberta prairie rangeland, using seasonal trends in NDVI and biomass during the 2009 and 2010 growing seasons, two years with contrasting rainfall regimes. The study compared harvested biomass and NDVI from field spectrometry to NDVI from three satellite platforms: the Aqua and Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Système Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT 4 and 5). Correlations between ground spectrometry and harvested biomass were also examined for each growing season. The contrasting precipitation patterns were easily captured with satellite NDVI, field NDVI and green biomass measurements. NDVI provided a proxy measure for green plant biomass, and was linearly related to the log of standing green biomass. NDVI phenology clearly detected the green biomass increase at the beginning of each growing season and the subsequent decrease in green biomass at the end of each growing season due to senescence. NDVI–biomass regressions evolved over each growing season due to end-of-season senescence and carryover of dead biomass to the following year. Consequently, mid-summer measurements yielded the strongest correlation (R² = 0.97) between NDVI and green biomass, particularly when the data were spatially aggregated to better match the satellite sampling scale. Of the three satellite platforms (MODIS Aqua, MODIS Terra, and SPOT), Terra yielded the best agreement with ground-measured NDVI, and SPOT yielded the weakest relationship. When used properly, NDVI from satellite remote sensing can accurately estimate peak-season productivity and detect interannual variation in standing green biomass, and field spectrometry can provide useful validation for satellite data in a biomass monitoring program in this prairie ecosystem. Together, these methods can be used to identify the effects of year-to-year precipitation variability on above-ground biomass in a dry mixed-grass prairie. These findings have clear applications in monitoring yield and productivity, and could be used to support a rangeland carbon monitoring program. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Structure and Dynamics)

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1355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Spectral Band Requirements for Improving Retrievals of Phytoplankton Functional Types

by Aleksandra Wolanin, Mariana A. Soppa and Astrid Bracher

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100871 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8866

Abstract

Studying phytoplankton functional types (PFTs) from space is possible due to recent advances in remote sensing. Though a variety of products are available, the limited number of wavelengths available compared to the number of model parameters needed to be retrieved is still a [...] Read more.

Studying phytoplankton functional types (PFTs) from space is possible due to recent advances in remote sensing. Though a variety of products are available, the limited number of wavelengths available compared to the number of model parameters needed to be retrieved is still a major problem in using ocean-color data for PFT retrievals. Here, we investigated which band placement could improve retrievals of three particular PFTs (diatoms, coccolithophores and cyanobacteria). In addition to analyzing dominant spectral features in the absorption spectra of the target PFTs, two previously-developed methods using measured spectra were applied to simulated data. Such a synthetic dataset allowed for significantly increasing the number of scenarios and enabled a full control over parameters causing spectral changes. We evaluated the chosen band placement by applying an adapted ocean reflectance inversion, as utilized in the generalized inherent optical properties (GIOP) retrieval. Results show that the optimal band settings depend on the method applied to determine the bands placement, as well as on the internal variability of the dataset investigated. Therefore, continuous hyperspectral instruments would be most beneficial for discriminating multiple PFTs, though a small improvement in spectral sampling and resolution does not significantly modify the results. Bands, which could be added to future instruments (e.g., Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI) instrument on the upcoming Sentinel-3B,-3C,-3D, etc., and further satellites) in order to enhance PFT retrieval capabilities, were also determined. Full article

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Graphical abstract

4852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing of Particle Cross-Sectional Area in the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea: Algorithm Development and Application Implications

by Shengqiang Wang, Yu Huan, Zhongfeng Qiu, Deyong Sun, Hailong Zhang, Lufei Zheng and Cong Xiao

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100841 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6974

Abstract

Suspended particles in waters play an important role in determination of optical properties and ocean color remote sensing. To link suspended particles to their optical properties and thereby remote sensing reflectance (R_rs(λ)), cross-sectional area is a key factor. [...] Read more.

Suspended particles in waters play an important role in determination of optical properties and ocean color remote sensing. To link suspended particles to their optical properties and thereby remote sensing reflectance (R_rs(λ)), cross-sectional area is a key factor. Till now, there is still a lack of methodologies for derivation of the particle cross-sectional area concentration (AC) from satellite measurements, which consequently limits potential applications of AC. In this study, we investigated the relationship between AC and R_rs(λ) based on field measurements in the Bohai Sea (BS) and Yellow Sea (YS). Our analysis confirmed the strong dependence of R_rs(λ) on AC and that such dependence is stronger than on mass concentration. Subsequently, a remote sensing algorithm that uses the slope of R_rs(λ) between 490 and 555 nm was developed for retrieval of AC from satellite measurements of the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI). In situ evaluations show that the algorithm displays good performance for deriving AC and is robust to uncertainties in R_rs(λ). When the algorithm was applied to satellite data, it performed well, with a coefficient of determination of 0.700, a root mean squared error of 2.126 m⁻¹ and a mean absolute percentage error of 40.7%, and it yielded generally reasonable spatial and temporal distributions of AC in the BS and YS. The satellite-derived AC using our algorithm may offer useful information for modeling the inherent optical properties of suspended particles, deriving the water transparency, estimating the particle composition and possibly improving particle mass concentration estimations in future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)

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35483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scale-Aware Pansharpening Algorithm for Agricultural Fragmented Landscapes

by Mario Lillo-Saavedra, Consuelo Gonzalo-Martín, Angel García-Pedrero and Octavio Lagos

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100870 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5095

Abstract

Remote sensing (RS) has played an important role in extensive agricultural monitoring and management for several decades. However, the current spatial resolution of satellite imagery does not have enough definition to generalize its use in highly-fragmented agricultural landscapes, which represents a significant percentage [...] Read more.

Remote sensing (RS) has played an important role in extensive agricultural monitoring and management for several decades. However, the current spatial resolution of satellite imagery does not have enough definition to generalize its use in highly-fragmented agricultural landscapes, which represents a significant percentage of the world’s total cultivated surface. To characterize and analyze this type of landscape, multispectral (MS) images with high and very high spatial resolutions are required. Multi-source image fusion algorithms are normally used to improve the spatial resolution of images with a medium spatial resolution. In particular, pansharpening (PS) methods allow one to produce high-resolution MS images through a coherent integration of spatial details from a panchromatic (PAN) image with spectral information from an MS. The spectral and spatial quality of source images must be preserved to be useful in RS tasks. Different PS strategies provide different trade-offs between the spectral and the spatial quality of the fused images. Considering that agricultural landscape images contain many levels of significant structures and edges, the PS algorithms based on filtering processes must be scale-aware and able to remove different levels of detail in any input images. In this work, a new PS methodology based on a rolling guidance filter (RGF) is proposed. The main contribution of this new methodology is to produce artifact-free pansharpened images, improving the MS edges with a scale-aware approach. Three images have been used, and more than 150 experiments were carried out. An objective comparison with widely-used methodologies shows the capability of the proposed method as a powerful tool to obtain pansharpened images preserving the spatial and spectral information. Full article

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30369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relasphone—Mobile and Participative In Situ Forest Biomass Measurements Supporting Satellite Image Mapping

by Matthieu Molinier, Carlos A. López-Sánchez, Timo Toivanen, Ilkka Korpela, José J. Corral-Rivas, Renne Tergujeff and Tuomas Häme

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100869 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 10727

Abstract

Due to the high cost of traditional forest plot measurements, the availability of up-to-date in situ forest inventory data has been a bottleneck for remote sensing image analysis in support of the important global forest biomass mapping. Capitalizing on the proliferation of smartphones, [...] Read more.

Due to the high cost of traditional forest plot measurements, the availability of up-to-date in situ forest inventory data has been a bottleneck for remote sensing image analysis in support of the important global forest biomass mapping. Capitalizing on the proliferation of smartphones, citizen science is a promising approach to increase spatial and temporal coverages of in situ forest observations in a cost-effective way. Digital cameras can be used as a relascope device to measure basal area, a forest density variable that is closely related to biomass. In this paper, we present the Relasphone mobile application with extensive accuracy assessment in two mixed forest sites from different biomes. Basal area measurements in Finland (boreal zone) were in good agreement with reference forest inventory plot data on pine (

R^{2} = 0.75

,

R M S E = 5.33

m

^{2}

/ha), spruce (

R^{2} = 0.75, R M S E = 6.73

m

^{2}

/ha) and birch (

R^{2} = 0.71, R M S E = 4.98

m

^{2}

/ha), with total relative

R M S E (%) = 29.66 %

. In Durango, Mexico (temperate zone), Relasphone stem volume measurements were best for pine (

R^{2} = 0.88

,

R M S E = 32.46

m

^{3}

/ha) and total stem volume (

R^{2} = 0.87

,

R M S E = 35.21

m

^{3}

/ha). Relasphone data were then successfully utilized as the only reference data in combination with optical satellite images to produce biomass maps. The Relasphone concept has been validated for future use by citizens in other locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Citizen Science and Earth Observation)

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9400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Urban Damage Using Remote Sensing and Machine Learning Algorithms: Revisiting the 2010 Haiti Earthquake

by Austin J. Cooner, Yang Shao and James B. Campbell

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100868 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 178 | Viewed by 15786

Abstract

Remote sensing continues to be an invaluable tool in earthquake damage assessments and emergency response. This study evaluates the effectiveness of multilayer feedforward neural networks, radial basis neural networks, and Random Forests in detecting earthquake damage caused by the 2010 Port-au-Prince, Haiti 7.0 [...] Read more.

Remote sensing continues to be an invaluable tool in earthquake damage assessments and emergency response. This study evaluates the effectiveness of multilayer feedforward neural networks, radial basis neural networks, and Random Forests in detecting earthquake damage caused by the 2010 Port-au-Prince, Haiti 7.0 moment magnitude (M_w) event. Additionally, textural and structural features including entropy, dissimilarity, Laplacian of Gaussian, and rectangular fit are investigated as key variables for high spatial resolution imagery classification. Our findings show that each of the algorithms achieved nearly a 90% kernel density match using the United Nations Operational Satellite Applications Programme (UNITAR/UNOSAT) dataset as validation. The multilayer feedforward network was able to achieve an error rate below 40% in detecting damaged buildings. Spatial features of texture and structure were far more important in algorithmic classification than spectral information, highlighting the potential for future implementation of machine learning algorithms which use panchromatic or pansharpened imagery alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for Geohazards)

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7200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Protection Level in the Hydroperiod of Water Bodies on Doñana’s Aeolian Sands

by Javier Bustamante, David Aragonés and Isabel Afán

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100867 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8778

Abstract

Mediterranean temporary ponds on Doñana’s aeolian sands form an extensive system of small dynamic water bodies, dependent on precipitation and groundwater, of considerable importance for biodiversity conservation. Different areas of the aeolian sands have received different levels of environmental protection since 1969, and [...] Read more.

Mediterranean temporary ponds on Doñana’s aeolian sands form an extensive system of small dynamic water bodies, dependent on precipitation and groundwater, of considerable importance for biodiversity conservation. Different areas of the aeolian sands have received different levels of environmental protection since 1969, and this has influenced the degree of conservation and the flooding dynamic of these temporary surface waters. We use the Landsat series of satellite images from 1985 to 2014 to study the temporal dynamic of small temporary water bodies on the aeolian sands in relation to the protection level and to distance to water abstraction pressures from agriculture and residential areas. The results show that even with small and ephemeral water bodies optical remote sensing time-series are an effective way to study their flooding temporal dynamics. The protected areas of the aeolian sands hold a better preserved system of temporary ponds, with a flooding dynamic that fluctuates with precipitation. The unprotected area shows an increase in mean hydroperiod duration, and surface flooded, and a decline in hydroperiod variability. This seems to be due to the creation of irrigation ponds and the artificialization of the flooding regime of the natural temporary ponds, that either receive excess irrigation water or dry-up due to the lowering of the groundwater table level. Although a decline in hydroperiod duration of temporary ponds is seen as negative to the system, an increase in hydroperiod of surface waters due to artificialization, or a decline in variability cannot be considered as positive compensatory effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue What can Remote Sensing Do for the Conservation of Wetlands?)

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4159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Guidance Index for Shallow Landslide Hazard Analysis

by Cheila Avalon Cullen, Rafea Al-Suhili and Reza Khanbilvardi

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100866 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7900

Abstract

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides are one of the most frequent hazards on slanted terrains. Intense storms with high-intensity and long-duration rainfall have high potential to trigger rapidly moving soil masses due to changes in pore water pressure and seepage forces. Nevertheless, regardless of the [...] Read more.

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides are one of the most frequent hazards on slanted terrains. Intense storms with high-intensity and long-duration rainfall have high potential to trigger rapidly moving soil masses due to changes in pore water pressure and seepage forces. Nevertheless, regardless of the intensity and/or duration of the rainfall, shallow landslides are influenced by antecedent soil moisture conditions. As of this day, no system exists that dynamically interrelates these two factors on large scales. This work introduces a Shallow Landslide Index (SLI) as the first implementation of antecedent soil moisture conditions for the hazard analysis of shallow rainfall-induced landslides. The proposed mathematical algorithm is built using a logistic regression method that systematically learns from a comprehensive landslide inventory. Initially, root-soil moisture and rainfall measurements modeled from AMSR-E and TRMM respectively, are used as proxies to develop the index. The input dataset is randomly divided into training and verification sets using the Hold-Out method. Validation results indicate that the best-fit model predicts the highest number of cases correctly at 93.2% accuracy. Consecutively, as AMSR-E and TRMM stopped working in October 2011 and April 2015 respectively, root-soil moisture and rainfall measurements modeled by SMAP and GPM are used to develop models that calculate the SLI for 10, 7, and 3 days. The resulting models indicate a strong relationship (78.7%, 79.6%, and 76.8% respectively) between the predictors and the predicted value. The results also highlight important remaining challenges such as adequate information for algorithm functionality and satellite based data reliability. Nevertheless, the experimental system can potentially be used as a dynamic indicator of the total amount of antecedent moisture and rainfall (for a given duration of time) needed to trigger a shallow landslide in a susceptible area. It is indicated that the SLI algorithm can be re-built for other regions where deterministic studies are not feasible. This represents a significant step towards rainfall-induced shallow landslide hazard readiness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for a Better Future Earth)

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3736 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Using Google Earth Surface Metrics to Predict Plant Species Richness in a Complex Landscape

by Sebastián Block, Edgar J. González, J. Alberto Gallardo-Cruz, Ana Fernández, Jonathan V. Solórzano and Jorge A. Meave

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100865 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6701

Abstract

Google Earth provides a freely available, global mosaic of high-resolution imagery from different sensors that has become popular in environmental and ecological studies. However, such imagery lacks the near-infrared band often used in studying vegetation, thus its potential for estimating vegetation properties remains [...] Read more.

Google Earth provides a freely available, global mosaic of high-resolution imagery from different sensors that has become popular in environmental and ecological studies. However, such imagery lacks the near-infrared band often used in studying vegetation, thus its potential for estimating vegetation properties remains unclear. In this study, we assess the potential of Google Earth imagery to describe and predict vegetation attributes. Further, we compare it to the potential of SPOT imagery, which has additional spectral information. We measured basal area, vegetation height, crown cover, density of individuals, and species richness in 60 plots in the oak forests of a complex volcanic landscape in central Mexico. We modelled each vegetation attribute as a function of surface metrics derived from Google Earth and SPOT images, and selected the best-supported linear models from each source. Total species richness was the best-described and predicted variable: the best Google Earth-based model explained nearly as much variation in species richness as its SPOT counterpart (R² = 0.44 and 0.51, respectively). However, Google Earth metrics emerged as poor predictors of all remaining vegetation attributes, whilst SPOT metrics showed potential for predicting vegetation height. We conclude that Google Earth imagery can be used to estimate species richness in complex landscapes. As it is freely available, Google Earth can broaden the use of remote sensing by researchers and managers in low-income tropical countries where most biodiversity hotspots are found. Full article

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873 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Abrupt Change in Forest Height along a Tropical Elevation Gradient Detected Using Airborne Lidar

by Jeffrey Wolf, Gilles Brocard, Jane Willenbring, Stephen Porder and María Uriarte

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 864; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100864 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6089

Abstract

Most research on vegetation in mountain ranges focuses on elevation gradients as climate gradients, but elevation gradients are also the result of geological processes that build and deconstruct mountains. Recent findings from the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, have raised questions about whether erosion [...] Read more.

Most research on vegetation in mountain ranges focuses on elevation gradients as climate gradients, but elevation gradients are also the result of geological processes that build and deconstruct mountains. Recent findings from the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, have raised questions about whether erosion rates that vary due to past tectonic events and are spatially patterned in relation to elevation may drive vegetation patterns along elevation gradients. Here we use airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology to observe forest height over the Luquillo Mountain Range. We show that models with different functional forms for the two prominent bedrock types best describe the forest height-elevation patterns. On one bedrock type there are abrupt decreases in forest height with elevation approximated by a sigmoidal function, with the inflection point near the elevation of where other studies have shown there to be a sharp change in erosion rates triggered by a tectonic uplift event that began approximately 4.2 My ago. Our findings are consistent with broad geologically mediated vegetation patterns along the elevation gradient, consistent with a role for mountain building and deconstructing processes. Full article

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10605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modified Three-Stage Inversion Algorithm Based on R-RVoG Model for Pol-InSAR Data

by Qi Zhang, Tiandong Liu, Zegang Ding, Tao Zeng and Teng Long

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100861 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5701

Abstract

In this paper, a modified two-layer scattering model is applied to a three-stage algorithm for high-precision retrieval of forest parameters from Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (Pol-InSAR) data. Traditional Random-Volume-over-Ground (RVoG) model considers forest target as a two-layer combination of flat ground and [...] Read more.

In this paper, a modified two-layer scattering model is applied to a three-stage algorithm for high-precision retrieval of forest parameters from Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (Pol-InSAR) data. Traditional Random-Volume-over-Ground (RVoG) model considers forest target as a two-layer combination of flat ground and volumetric canopy. However, when it comes to sloped terrain, the inversion accuracy of three-stage process deteriorates with the ascending estimation error in volume correlation which is mainly caused by the existence of underlying terrain slope. Aiming at this problem, a Range-sloped RVoG (R-RVoG) model is presented in this paper. By modifying the ground layer as a range-sloped plane, the complex correlation of R-RVoG model can be amended as a function of ground phase, ground-to-volume scattering ratio, forest height, mean extinction and range slope. The introduction of range slope variable makes this modified model better resemble to real scene and thus improves the performance of three-stage algorithm. Both of the simulated data with different terrain slopes and the Space-borne Imaging Radar-C (SIR-C) real data in Tianshan test area are processed to verify the validity of this modification. Full article

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3630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Smallholder Wheat Yields and Sowing Dates Using Micro-Satellite Data

by Meha Jain, Amit K. Srivastava, Balwinder-Singh, Rajiv K. Joon, Andrew McDonald, Keitasha Royal, Madeline C. Lisaius and David B. Lobell

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100860 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 16627

Abstract

Remote sensing offers a low-cost method for developing spatially continuous crop production statistics across large areas and through time. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to characterize the production of individual smallholder farms, given that the land-holding size in most areas of South Asia [...] Read more.

Remote sensing offers a low-cost method for developing spatially continuous crop production statistics across large areas and through time. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to characterize the production of individual smallholder farms, given that the land-holding size in most areas of South Asia (<2 ha) is smaller than the spatial resolution of most freely available satellite imagery, like Landsat and MODIS. In addition, existing methods to map yield require field-level data to develop and parameterize predictive algorithms that translate satellite vegetation indices to yield, yet these data are costly or difficult to obtain in many smallholder systems. To overcome these challenges, this study explores two issues. First, we employ new high spatial (2 m) and temporal (bi-weekly) resolution micro-satellite SkySat data to map sowing dates and yields of smallholder wheat fields in Bihar, India in the 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 growing seasons. Second, we compare how well we predict sowing date and yield when using ground data, like crop cuts and self-reports, versus using crop models, which require no on-the-ground data, to develop and parameterize prediction models. Overall, sow dates were predicted well (R² = 0.41 in 2014–2015 and R² = 0.62 in 2015–2016), particularly when using models that were parameterized using self-report sow dates collected close to the time of planting and when using imagery that spanned the entire growing season. We were also able to map yields fairly well (R² = 0.27 in 2014–2015 and R² = 0.33 in 2015–2016), with crop cut parameterized models resulting in the highest accuracies. While less accurate, we were able to capture the large range in sow dates and yields across farms when using models parameterized with crop model data and these estimates were able to detect known relationships between management factors (e.g., sow date, fertilizer, and irrigation) and yield. While these results are specific to our study site in India, it is likely that the methods employed and the lessons learned are applicable to smallholder systems more generally across the globe. This is of particular interest given that similar high spatio-temporal resolution micro-satellite data will become increasingly available in the coming years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mapping, Monitoring and Impact Assessment of Land Cover/Land Use Changes in South and South East Asia)

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13325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Shape-Adjusted Tridimensional Reconstruction of Cultural Heritage Artifacts Using a Miniature Quadrotor

by Théo Louiset, Anthony Pamart, Eloi Gattet, Thibaut Raharijaona, Livio De Luca and Franck Ruffier

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100858 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6452

Abstract

The innovative automated 3D modeling procedure presented here was used to reconstruct a Cultural Heritage (CH) object by means of an unmanned aerial vehicle. Using a motion capture system, a small low-cost quadrotor equipped with a miniature low-resolution Raspberry Pi camera module was [...] Read more.

The innovative automated 3D modeling procedure presented here was used to reconstruct a Cultural Heritage (CH) object by means of an unmanned aerial vehicle. Using a motion capture system, a small low-cost quadrotor equipped with a miniature low-resolution Raspberry Pi camera module was accurately controlled in the closed loop mode and made to follow a trajectory around the artifact. A two-stage process ensured the accuracy of the 3D reconstruction process. The images taken during the first circular trajectory were used to draw the artifact’s shape. The second trajectory was smartly and autonomously adjusted to match the artifact’s shape, then it provides new pictures taken close to the artifact and, thus, greatly improves the final 3D reconstruction in terms of the completeness, accuracy and quickness, in particular where the artifact’s shape is complex. The results obtained here using close-range photogrammetric methods show that the process of automated 3D model reconstruction based on a robotized quadrotor using a motion capture system is a realistic approach, which could provide a suitable new digital conservation tool in the cultural heritage field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Cultural Heritage)

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23765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Taking Advantage of the ESA G-POD Service to Study Ground Deformation Processes in High Mountain Areas: A Valle d’Aosta Case Study, Northern Italy

by Martina Cignetti, Andrea Manconi, Michele Manunta, Daniele Giordan, Claudio De Luca, Paolo Allasia and Francesca Ardizzone

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100852 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8009

Abstract

This paper presents a methodology taking advantage of the GPOD-SBAS service to study the surface deformation information over high mountain regions. Indeed, the application of the advanced DInSAR over the arduous regions represents a demanding task. We implemented an iterative selection procedure of [...] Read more.

This paper presents a methodology taking advantage of the GPOD-SBAS service to study the surface deformation information over high mountain regions. Indeed, the application of the advanced DInSAR over the arduous regions represents a demanding task. We implemented an iterative selection procedure of the most suitable SAR images, aimed to preserve the largest number of SAR scenes, and the fine-tuning of several advanced configuration parameters. This method is aimed at minimizing the temporal decorrelation effects, principally due to snow cover, and maximizing the number of coherent targets and their spatial distribution. The methodology is applied to the Valle d’Aosta (VDA) region, Northern Italy, an alpine area characterized by high altitudes, complex morphology, and susceptibility to different mass wasting phenomena. The approach using GPOD-SBAS allows for the obtainment of mean deformation velocity maps and displacement time series relative to the time period from 1992 to 2000, relative to ESR-1/2, and from 2002 to 2010 for ASAR-Envisat. Our results demonstrate how the DInSAR application can obtain reliable information of ground displacement over time in these regions, and may represent a suitable instrument for natural hazards assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for Geohazards)

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9179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Fire Changes in Forest Biomass Retrieved by Airborne LiDAR in Amazonia

by Luciane Yumie Sato, Vitor Conrado Faria Gomes, Yosio Edemir Shimabukuro, Michael Keller, Egidio Arai, Maiza Nara Dos-Santos, Irving Foster Brown and Luiz Eduardo Oliveira e Cruz de Aragão

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100839 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8349

Abstract

Fire is one of the main factors directly impacting Amazonian forest biomass and dynamics. Because of Amazonia’s large geographical extent, remote sensing techniques are required for comprehensively assessing forest fire impacts at the landscape level. In this context, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) [...] Read more.

Fire is one of the main factors directly impacting Amazonian forest biomass and dynamics. Because of Amazonia’s large geographical extent, remote sensing techniques are required for comprehensively assessing forest fire impacts at the landscape level. In this context, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) stands out as a technology capable of retrieving direct measurements of vegetation vertical arrangement, which can be directly associated with aboveground biomass. This work aims, for the first time, to quantify post-fire changes in forest canopy height and biomass using airborne LiDAR in western Amazonia. For this, the present study evaluated four areas located in the state of Acre, called Rio Branco, Humaitá, Bonal and Talismã. Rio Branco and Humaitá burned in 2005 and Bonal and Talismã burned in 2010. In these areas, we inventoried a total of 25 plots (0.25 ha each) in 2014. Humaitá and Talismã are located in an open forest with bamboo and Bonal and Rio Branco are located in a dense forest. Our results showed that even ten years after the fire event, there was no complete recovery of the height and biomass of the burned areas (p < 0.05). The percentage difference in height between control and burned sites was 2.23% for Rio Branco, 9.26% for Humaitá, 10.03% for Talismã and 20.25% for Bonal. All burned sites had significantly lower biomass values than control sites. In Rio Branco (ten years after fire), Humaitá (nine years after fire), Bonal (four years after fire) and Talismã (five years after fire) biomass was 6.71%, 13.66%, 17.89% and 22.69% lower than control sites, respectively. The total amount of biomass lost for the studied sites was 16,706.3 Mg, with an average loss of 4176.6 Mg for sites burned in 2005 and 2890 Mg for sites burned in 2010, with an average loss of 3615 Mg. Fire impact associated with tree mortality was clearly detected using LiDAR data up to ten years after the fire event. This study indicates that fire disturbance in the Amazon region can cause persistent above-ground biomass loss and subsequent reduction of forest carbon stocks. Continuous monitoring of burned forests is required for depicting the long-term recovery trajectory of fire-affected Amazonian forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Sensors, Multi-Sensor Integration, Large Volumes: New Opportunities and Challenges in Forest Fire Research)

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3229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Exploring the Link between Urban Area Expansion over Time and the Opportunity for Crime in Saudi Arabia

by Mofza Algahtany and Lalit Kumar

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100863 - 19 Oct 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6646

Abstract

Urban area expansion is one of the most critical types of worldwide change, and most urban areas are experiencing increased growth in population and infrastructure development. Urban change leads to many changes in the daily activities of people living within an affected area. [...] Read more.

Urban area expansion is one of the most critical types of worldwide change, and most urban areas are experiencing increased growth in population and infrastructure development. Urban change leads to many changes in the daily activities of people living within an affected area. Many studies have suggested that urbanization and crime are related. However, they focused particularly on land uses, types of land use, and urban forms, such as the physical features of neighbourhoods, roads, shopping centres, and bus stations. Understanding the correlation between urban area expansion and crime is very important for criminologists and urban planning decision-makers. In this study, we have used satellite images to measure urban expansion over a 10-year period and tested the correlations between these expansions and the number of criminal activities within these specific areas. The results show that there is a measurable relationship between urban expansion and criminal activities. Our findings support the crime opportunity theory as one possibility, which suggests that population density and crime are conceptually related. We found the correlations are stronger where there has been greater urban growth. Many other factors that may affect crime rate are not included in this paper, such as information on the spatial details of the population, city planning, economic considerations, the distance from the city centre, neighbourhood quality, and police numbers. However, this study will be of particular interest to those who aim to use remote sensing to study patterns of crime. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Societal and Economic Benefits of Earth Observation Technologies)

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4104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indicators for Assessing Habitat Values and Pressures for Protected Areas—An Integrated Habitat and Land Cover Change Approach for the Udzungwa Mountains National Park in Tanzania

by Andreas B. Brink, Javier Martínez-López, Zoltan Szantoi, Pablo Moreno-Atencia, Andrea Lupi, Lucy Bastin and Grégoire Dubois

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100862 - 19 Oct 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7700

Abstract

Assessing the status and monitoring the trends of land cover dynamics in and around protected areas is of utmost importance for park managers and decision makers. Moreover, to support the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’s Strategic Action Plan including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, [...] Read more.

Assessing the status and monitoring the trends of land cover dynamics in and around protected areas is of utmost importance for park managers and decision makers. Moreover, to support the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’s Strategic Action Plan including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, such efforts are necessary to set a framework to reach the agreed national, regional or global targets. The integration of land use/cover change (LULCC) data with information on habitats and population density provides the means to assess potential degradation and disturbance resulting from anthropogenic activities such as agriculture and urban area expansion. This study assesses the LULCC over a 20 year (1990–2000–2010) period using freely available Landsat imagery and a dedicated method and toolbox for the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (UMNP) and its surroundings (20 km buffer) in Tanzania. Habitat data gathered from the Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA)’s eHabitat+ Web service were used to perform ecological stratification of the study area and to develop similarity maps of the potential presence of comparable habitat types outside the protected area. Finally, integration of the habitat similarity maps with the LULCC data was applied in order to evaluate potential pressures on the different habitats within the national park and on the linking corridors between UMNP and other protected areas in the context of wildlife movement and migration. The results show that the UMNP has not suffered from relevant human activities during the study period. The natural vegetation area has remained stable around 1780 km². In the surrounding 20 km buffer area and the connecting corridors, however, the anthropogenic impact has been strong. Artificially built up areas increased by 14.24% over the last 20 years and the agriculture area increased from 11% in 1990 to 30% in the year 2010. The habitat functional types and the similarity maps confirmed the importance of the buffer zone and the connecting corridors for wildlife movements, while the similarity maps detected other potential corridors for wildlife. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Land Changes)

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28642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manifold Learning Co-Location Decision Tree for Remotely Sensed Imagery Classification

by Guoqing Zhou, Rongting Zhang and Dianjun Zhang

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100855 - 19 Oct 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5670

Abstract

Because traditional decision tree (DT) induction methods cannot efficiently take advantage of geospatial knowledge in the classification of remotely sensed imagery, several researchers have presented a co-location decision tree (CL-DT) method that combines the co-location technique with the traditional DT method. However, the [...] Read more.

Because traditional decision tree (DT) induction methods cannot efficiently take advantage of geospatial knowledge in the classification of remotely sensed imagery, several researchers have presented a co-location decision tree (CL-DT) method that combines the co-location technique with the traditional DT method. However, the CL-DT method only considers the Euclidean distance of neighborhood events, which cannot truly reflect the co-location relationship between instances for which there is a nonlinear distribution in a high-dimensional space. For this reason, this paper develops the theory and method for a maximum variance unfolding (MVU)-based CL-DT method (known as MVU-based CL-DT), which includes unfolding input data, unfolded distance calculations, MVU-based co-location rule generation, and MVU-based CL-DT generation. The proposed method has been validated by classifying remotely sensed imagery and is compared with four other types of methods, i.e., CL-DT, classification and regression tree (CART), random forests (RFs), and stacked auto-encoders (SAE), whose classification results are taken as “true values.” The experimental results demonstrate that: (1) the relative classification accuracies of the proposed method in three test areas are higher than CL-DT and CART, and are at the same level compared to RFs; and (2) the total number of nodes, the number of leaf nodes, and the number of levels are significantly decreased by the proposed method. The time taken for the data processing, decision tree generation, drawing of the tree, and generation of the rules are also shortened by the proposed method compared to CL-DT, CART, and RFs. Full article

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10535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Tasks of the Crowd: A Typology of Tasks in Geographic Information Crowdsourcing and a Case Study in Humanitarian Mapping

by João Porto de Albuquerque, Benjamin Herfort and Melanie Eckle

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100859 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 15071

Abstract

In the past few years, volunteers have produced geographic information of different kinds, using a variety of different crowdsourcing platforms, within a broad range of contexts. However, there is still a lack of clarity about the specific types of tasks that volunteers can [...] Read more.

In the past few years, volunteers have produced geographic information of different kinds, using a variety of different crowdsourcing platforms, within a broad range of contexts. However, there is still a lack of clarity about the specific types of tasks that volunteers can perform for deriving geographic information from remotely sensed imagery, and how the quality of the produced information can be assessed for particular task types. To fill this gap, we analyse the existing literature and propose a typology of tasks in geographic information crowdsourcing, which distinguishes between classification, digitisation and conflation tasks. We then present a case study related to the “Missing Maps” project aimed at crowdsourced classification to support humanitarian aid. We use our typology to distinguish between the different types of crowdsourced tasks in the project and choose classification tasks related to identifying roads and settlements for an evaluation of the crowdsourced classification. This evaluation shows that the volunteers achieved a satisfactory overall performance (accuracy: 89%; sensitivity: 73%; and precision: 89%). We also analyse different factors that could influence the performance, concluding that volunteers were more likely to incorrectly classify tasks with small objects. Furthermore, agreement among volunteers was shown to be a very good predictor of the reliability of crowdsourced classification: tasks with the highest agreement level were 41 times more probable to be correctly classified by volunteers. The results thus show that the crowdsourced classification of remotely sensed imagery is able to generate geographic information about human settlements with a high level of quality. This study also makes clear the different sophistication levels of tasks that can be performed by volunteers and reveals some factors that may have an impact on their performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Citizen Science and Earth Observation)

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5031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oil Droplet Clouds Suspended in the Sea: Can They Be Remotely Detected?

by Zbigniew Otremba

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100857 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4569

Abstract

Oil floating on the sea surface can be detected by both passive and active methods using the ultraviolet-to-microwave spectrum, whereas oil immersed below the sea surface can signal its presence only in visible light. This paper presents an optical model representing a selected [...] Read more.

Oil floating on the sea surface can be detected by both passive and active methods using the ultraviolet-to-microwave spectrum, whereas oil immersed below the sea surface can signal its presence only in visible light. This paper presents an optical model representing a selected case of the sea polluted by an oil suspension for a selected concentration (10 ppm) located in a layer of exemplary thickness (5 m) separated from the sea surface by an unpolluted layer (thickness 1 m). The impact of wavelength and state of the sea surface on reflectance changes is presented based on the results of Monte Carlo ray tracing. A two-wavelength index of reflectance is proposed to detect oil suspended in the water column (645–469 nm). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing and Oil Spill Response: Leveraging New Technologies to Safeguard the Environment)

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32996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spectral Discrimination of Vegetation Classes in Ice-Free Areas of Antarctica

by María Calviño-Cancela and Julio Martín-Herrero

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 856; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100856 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7351

Abstract

Detailed monitoring of vegetation changes in ice-free areas of Antarctica is crucial to determine the effects of climate warming and increasing human presence in this vulnerable ecosystem. Remote sensing techniques are especially suitable in this distant and rough environment, with high spectral and [...] Read more.

Detailed monitoring of vegetation changes in ice-free areas of Antarctica is crucial to determine the effects of climate warming and increasing human presence in this vulnerable ecosystem. Remote sensing techniques are especially suitable in this distant and rough environment, with high spectral and spatial resolutions needed owing to the patchiness and similarity between vegetation elements. We analyze the reflectance spectra of the most representative vegetation elements in ice-free areas of Antarctica to assess the potential for discrimination. This research is aimed as a basis for future aircraft/satellite research for long-term vegetation monitoring. The study was conducted in the Barton Peninsula, King George Island. The reflectance of ground patches of different types of vegetation or bare ground (c. 0.25

m^{2}

,

n = 30

patches per class) was recorded with a spectrophotometer measuring between 340

nm

to 1025

nm

at a resolution of 0.38

n m

. We used Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) to classify the cover classes according to reflectance spectra, after reduction of the number of bands using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The first five principal components explained an accumulated 99.4% of the total variance and were added to the discriminant function. The LDA classification resulted in c. 92% of cases correctly classified (a hit ratio 11.9 times greater than chance). The most important region for discrimination was the visible and near ultraviolet (UV), with the relative importance of spectral bands steeply decreasing in the Near Infra-Red (NIR) region. Our study shows the feasibility of discriminating among representative taxa of Antarctic vegetation using their spectral patterns in the near UV, visible and NIR. The results are encouraging for hyperspectral vegetation mapping in Antarctica, which could greatly facilitate monitoring vegetation changes in response to a changing environment, reducing the costs and environmental impacts of field surveys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observations for a Better Future Earth)

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7880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secondary Fault Activity of the North Anatolian Fault near Avcilar, Southwest of Istanbul: Evidence from SAR Interferometry Observations

by Faqi Diao, Thomas R. Walter, Federico Minati, Rongjiang Wang, Mario Costantini, Semih Ergintav, Xiong Xiong and Pau Prats-Iraola

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100846 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7465

Abstract

Strike-slip faults may be traced along thousands of kilometers, e.g., the San Andreas Fault (USA) or the North Anatolian Fault (Turkey). A closer look at such continental-scale strike faults reveals localized complexities in fault geometry, associated with fault segmentation, secondary faults and a [...] Read more.

Strike-slip faults may be traced along thousands of kilometers, e.g., the San Andreas Fault (USA) or the North Anatolian Fault (Turkey). A closer look at such continental-scale strike faults reveals localized complexities in fault geometry, associated with fault segmentation, secondary faults and a change of related hazards. The North Anatolian Fault displays such complexities nearby the mega city Istanbul, which is a place where earthquake risks are high, but secondary processes are not well understood. In this paper, long-term persistent scatterer interferometry (PSI) analysis of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data time series was used to precisely identify the surface deformation pattern associated with the faulting complexity at the prominent bend of the North Anatolian Fault near Istanbul city. We elaborate the relevance of local faulting activity and estimate the fault status (slip rate and locking depth) for the first time using satellite SAR interferometry (InSAR) technology. The studied NW-SE-oriented fault on land is subject to strike-slip movement at a mean slip rate of ~5.0 mm/year and a shallow locking depth of <1.0 km and thought to be directly interacting with the main fault branch, with important implications for tectonic coupling. Our results provide the first geodetic evidence on the segmentation of a major crustal fault with a structural complexity and associated multi-hazards near the inhabited regions of Istanbul, with similarities also to other major strike-slip faults that display changes in fault traces and mechanisms. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variations of Lake Surface Temperature across the Tibetan Plateau Using MODIS LST Product

by Kaishan Song, Min Wang, Jia Du, Yue Yuan, Jianhang Ma, Ming Wang and Guangyi Mu

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100854 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6618

Abstract

Satellite remote sensing provides a powerful tool for assessing lake water surface temperature (LWST) variations, particularly for large water bodies that reside in remote areas. In this study, the MODIS land surface temperature (LST) product level 3 (MOD11A2) was used to investigate the [...] Read more.

Satellite remote sensing provides a powerful tool for assessing lake water surface temperature (LWST) variations, particularly for large water bodies that reside in remote areas. In this study, the MODIS land surface temperature (LST) product level 3 (MOD11A2) was used to investigate the spatiotemporal variation of LWST for 56 large lakes across the Tibetan Plateau and examine the factors affecting the LWST variations during 2000–2015. The results show that the annual cycles of LWST across the Tibetan Plateau ranged from −19.5 °C in early February to 25.1 °C in late July. Obvious diurnal temperature differences (DTDs) were observed for various lakes, ranging from 1.3 to 8.9 °C in summer, and large and deep lakes show less DTDs variations. Overall, a LWST trend cannot be detected for the 56 lakes in the plateau over the past 15 years. However, 38 (68%) lakes show a temperature decrease trend with a mean rate of −0.06 °C/year, and 18 (32%) lakes show a warming rate of (0.04 °C/year) based on daytime MODIS measurements. With respect to nighttime measurements, 27 (48%) lakes demonstrate a temperature increase with a mean rate of 0.051 °C/year, and 29 (52%) lakes exhibit a temperature decrease trend with a mean rate of −0.062 °C/year. The rate of LWST change was statistically significant for 19 (21) lakes, including three (eight) warming and 17 (13) cooling lakes for daytime (nighttime) measurements, respectively. This investigation indicates that lake depth and area (volume), attitude, geographical location and water supply sources affect the spatiotemporal variations of LWST across the Tibetan Plateau. Full article

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