Energies

Research

18 pages, 6065 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimal Sizing of Battery and Super-Capacitor Based on the MOPSO Technique via a New FC-HEV Application

by Abdeldjalil Djouahi, Belkhir Negrou, Boubakeur Rouabah, Abdelbasset Mahboub and Mohamed Mahmoud Samy

Energies 2023, 16(9), 3902; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093902 - 5 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1273

Abstract

In light of the energy and environment issues, fuel cell vehicles have many advantages, including high efficiency, low-temperature operation, and zero greenhouse gas emissions, making them an excellent choice for urban environments where air pollution is a significant problem. The dynamics of fuel [...] Read more.

In light of the energy and environment issues, fuel cell vehicles have many advantages, including high efficiency, low-temperature operation, and zero greenhouse gas emissions, making them an excellent choice for urban environments where air pollution is a significant problem. The dynamics of fuel cells, on the other hand, are relatively slow, owing principally to the dynamics of the air compressor and the dynamics of manifold filling. Because these dynamics can limit the overall performance of fuel cell vehicles, two key technologies that have emerged as critical components of electric vehicle powertrains are batteries and supercapacitors. However, choosing the best hybrid energy storage system that combines a battery and a supercapacitor is a critical task nowadays. An electric vehicle simulated application by MATLAB Code is modeled in this article using the multi-objective particle swarm optimization technique (MOPSO) to determine the appropriate type of batteries and supercapacitors in the SFTP-SC03 drive cycle. This application optimized both component sizing and power management at the same time. Batteries of five distinct types (Lithium, Li-ion, Li-S, Ni-Nicl2, and Ni-MH) and supercapacitors of two different types (Maxwell BCAP0003 and ESHSR-3000CO) were used. Each storage component is distinguished by its weight, capacity, and cost. As a consequence, using a Li-ion battery with the Maxwell BCAP0003 represented the optimal form of hybrid storage in our driving conditions, reducing fuel consumption by approximately 0.43% when compared to the ESHSR-3000CO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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14 pages, 3365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Balance of Plant and Performance Simulation for Vehicle Applications

by Tino Vidović, Ivan Tolj, Gojmir Radica and Natalia Bodrožić Ćoko

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8110; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218110 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4040

Abstract

In this study, a newly developed zero-dimensional electrochemical model was used for modeling and controlling proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) performance. Calibration of the model was performed with measurements from the fuel cell stack. Subsequently, a compressor and a humidifier on the cathode [...] Read more.

In this study, a newly developed zero-dimensional electrochemical model was used for modeling and controlling proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) performance. Calibration of the model was performed with measurements from the fuel cell stack. Subsequently, a compressor and a humidifier on the cathode side were sized and added to the existing model. The aim of this work was to model the PEMFC stack and balance of plant (BoP) components in detail to show the influence of operating parameters such as cathode pressure, stack temperature and cathode stoichiometric ratio on the performance and efficiency of the overall system compared to the original model using a newly developed real-time model. The model managed to predict the profile of essential parameters, such as temperature, pressure, power, voltage, etc. The most important conclusions from this particular case are: the cell power output is only slightly changed with the variations in stoichiometric ratio of the cathode side and adding an external compressor is valid only for high current applications, but in those cases, there is 10–22% power gain. Stack temperature is a very influential parameter. Optimal temperatures were determined through design of experiments (DoE) and for this case are in the 40–60 °C range, where for low current applications lower temperatures are better due lower activation loss (8% difference between 80 °C and 40 °C at 20 A current). For high current applications, due to lower ohmic losses, higher temperatures are desirable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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16 pages, 5140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Closed-Loop Water Management Methodology for PEM Fuel Cell System Based on Impedance Information Feedback

by Xinjie Xu, Kai Li, Zhenjie Liao, Jishen Cao and Renkang Wang

Energies 2022, 15(20), 7561; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207561 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1570

Abstract

Water management is an important issue for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The research mainly focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of faults. However, faults harm PEMFC and cause its durability decay, whatever duration they last. This study designs a closed-loop water [...] Read more.

Water management is an important issue for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The research mainly focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of faults. However, faults harm PEMFC and cause its durability decay, whatever duration they last. This study designs a closed-loop water management system to control the water content in a reasonable range which can not only avoid the faults of hydration and flooding but also improve the performance and durability of PEMFC. The proposed system introduces the measurement methodology based on the phase of single-frequency impedance, which corresponds numerically well with the water content. Moreover, two preferred operating conditions, cathode air stoichiometry and stack temperature, are adopted to regulate the water content with a trade-off between the time cost and power loss. The open-loop characteristics of water content on the temperature and air stoichiometry are studied to design the corresponding control strategy. Findings suggest that air stoichiometry is suitable for large regulation requirements of water content, while the temperature is suitable to meet small demands. Finally, the proposed closed-loop water management system is validated by experiments in variable-load and constant-load with disturbance situations. The results indicate that the proposed system effectively controls the water content within a 3% deviation from the desired value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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16 pages, 3853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Recuperation from Hydrogen Fuel Cell during Aerial Mission

by Lev Zakhvatkin, Alex Schechter and Idit Avrahami

Energies 2022, 15(18), 6848; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186848 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3144

Abstract

A water recuperation system (WRS) from an open-cathode proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is designed to increase the energy density of hydrogen production by hydrolysis of metal hydrides. WRS may significantly reduce the water weight in the carried fuel. The design is [...] Read more.

A water recuperation system (WRS) from an open-cathode proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is designed to increase the energy density of hydrogen production by hydrolysis of metal hydrides. WRS may significantly reduce the water weight in the carried fuel. The design is based on circulating the humid air through the PEMFC stack in a closed dome. To ensure oxygen supply to the PEMFC, the WRS has a ventilation inlet and an exhaust outlet. The required conditions for ventilation flow are developed theoretically and examined experimentally in a WRS prototype with a commercial PEMFC at 20–100 W. The experimental system includeds a closed dome, an edge cooling system for the PEMFC, a controllable ventilation air inlet, and an exhaust port. The humid exhaust air was cooled down to the ambient temperature to improve vapor condensation. Results show high efficiency (80% recuperated water from prediction), with a potential to achieve gravimetric hydrogen storage capacity (GHSC) of >6 wt% at an ambient temperature of 27 °C. The described principle may be applied for small fixed-wing drones where the cold ambient air may be utilized both for providing oxygen supply and for thermal management of the PEMFC and the humid exhaust, thus allowing higher GHSC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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20 pages, 10422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Energy Management Strategy of Fuel Cell Vehicle Based on Multi-Dimensional Dynamic Programming

by Yanwei Liu, Jiansheng Liang, Jiaqing Song and Jie Ye

Energies 2022, 15(14), 5190; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145190 - 18 Jul 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1683

Abstract

The powertrain of a fuel cell vehicle typically consists of two energy sources: a proton electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stack and a battery package. In this paper, multi-dimensional dynamic programming (MDDP) is used to solve the energy management strategy (EMS) of fuel [...] Read more.

The powertrain of a fuel cell vehicle typically consists of two energy sources: a proton electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stack and a battery package. In this paper, multi-dimensional dynamic programming (MDDP) is used to solve the energy management strategy (EMS) of fuel cell hybrid powertrain. This study built a fuel cell hybrid powertrain model, in which the battery model is built based on the Thevenin equivalent circuit. In order to improve the calculating efficiency and maintain the accuracy of the algorithm, the state variables in each stage are divided into primary and secondary. In the reverse solution process, the corresponding relationship between the multi state variables grid and the optimal cumulative function has been changed from three-dimensional to two-dimensional. The EMS based on MDDP is applied to component sizing of a commercial vehicle. Simulations were conducted using MATLAB under the C-WTVC working condition. By analyzing the fuel economy and system durability, the optimal component combination of comprehensive performance is obtained. Compared with the EMS based on dynamic programming (DP), the proposed method effectively improves the calculation accuracy: the hydrogen consumption can be reduced by 3.10%, and the durability of the fuel cell and battery can be improved by 1.08% and 0.13%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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18 pages, 2568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dehydrogenation of Metal Hydride Reactor-Phase Change Materials Coupled with Light-Duty Fuel Cell Vehicles

by Serge Nyallang Nyamsi, Ivan Tolj and Michał Jan Gęca

Energies 2022, 15(9), 2982; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15092982 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2086

Abstract

The popularity of using phase change materials (PCMs) for heat storage and recovery of metal hydrides’ reaction has grown tremendously. However, a fundamental study of the coupling of such a system with a low-temperature PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane) fuel cell is still lacking. [...] Read more.

The popularity of using phase change materials (PCMs) for heat storage and recovery of metal hydrides’ reaction has grown tremendously. However, a fundamental study of the coupling of such a system with a low-temperature PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane) fuel cell is still lacking. This work presents a numerical investigation of the dehydrogenation performance of a metal hydride reactor (MHR)-PCM system coupled with a fuel cell. It is shown that to supply the fuel cell with a constant H₂ flow rate, the PCM properties need to be in an optimized range. The effects of some design parameters (PCM freezing point, the initial desorption temperature, the nature and the size of the PCM) on the dehydrogenation performance of MHR-PCM system are discussed in detail. The results showed that the MHR-PCM could supply hydrogen at 12 NL/min only for 20 min maximum due to the significant endothermic effect occurring in the MHR. However, reducing the requested H₂ flowrate to 5.5 NL/min, the hydrogen desorption to a fuel cell is prolonged to 79 min. Moreover, this system can accommodate different PCMs such as paraffin and salt hydrates for comparable performance. This study demonstrates the ability of MHR-PCM systems to be used as range extenders in light-duty fuel cell vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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17 pages, 7245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control Strategy Assessment for Improving PEM Fuel Cell System Efficiency in Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles

by Sara Luciani and Andrea Tonoli

Energies 2022, 15(6), 2004; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062004 - 9 Mar 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4115

Abstract

Concerns about climate change, air pollution, and the depletion of oil resources have prompted authorities to enforce increasingly strict rules in the automotive sector. There are several benefits to implementing fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHV) in the transportation sector, including the ability to [...] Read more.

Concerns about climate change, air pollution, and the depletion of oil resources have prompted authorities to enforce increasingly strict rules in the automotive sector. There are several benefits to implementing fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHV) in the transportation sector, including the ability to assist in reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen as energy carriers. This paper examines different control strategies for optimizing the power split between the battery and PEM fuel cell in order to maximize the PEM fuel cell system efficiency and reduce fuel consumption. First, the vehicle and fuel cell system models are described. A forward approach is considered to model the vehicle dynamics, while a semi-empirical and quasi-static model is used for the PEM fuel cell. Then, different rule-based control strategies are analyzed with the aim of maximizing fuel cell system efficiency while ensuring a constant battery state of charge (SOC). The different methods are evaluated while the FCHV is performing both low-load and high-load drive cycles. The hydrogen consumption and the overall fuel cell system efficiency are considered for all testing conditions. The results highlight that in both low-load cycles and high-load cycles, the best control strategies achieve a fuel cell system efficiency equal or greater to 33%, while achieving a fuel consumption 30% less with respect to the baseline control strategy in low-load drive cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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13 pages, 4014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pore-Filled Proton-Exchange Membranes with Fluorinated Moiety for Fuel Cell Application

by Hyeon-Bee Song, Jong-Hyeok Park, Jin-Soo Park and Moon-Sung Kang

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4433; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154433 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2370

Abstract

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are the heart of promising hydrogen-fueled electric vehicles, and should lower their price and further improve durability. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the performances of the proton-exchange membrane (PEM), which is a key component of a PEMFC. [...] Read more.

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are the heart of promising hydrogen-fueled electric vehicles, and should lower their price and further improve durability. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the performances of the proton-exchange membrane (PEM), which is a key component of a PEMFC. In this study, novel pore-filled proton-exchange membranes (PFPEMs) were developed, in which a partially fluorinated ionomer with high cross-linking density is combined with a porous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) substrate. By using a thin and tough porous PTFE substrate film, it was possible to easily fabricate a composite membrane possessing sufficient physical strength and low mass transfer resistance. Therefore, it was expected that the manufacturing method would be simple and suitable for a continuous process, thereby significantly reducing the membrane price. In addition, by using a tri-functional cross-linker, the cross-linking density was increased. The oxidation stability was greatly enhanced by introducing a fluorine moiety into the polymer backbone, and the compatibility with the perfluorinated ionomer binder was also improved. The prepared PFPEMs showed stable PEMFC performance (as maximum power density) equivalent to 72% of Nafion 212. It is noted that the conductivity of the PFPEMs corresponds to 58–63% of that of Nafion 212. Thus, it is expected that a higher fuel cell performance could be achieved when the membrane resistance is further lowered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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23 pages, 58902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Sensitivity to Evaluate the Impact of Operating Parameters on Stability and Performance in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

by Mingzhang Pan, Chengjie Pan, Jinyang Liao, Chao Li, Rong Huang and Qiwei Wang

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4069; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144069 - 6 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2095

Abstract

As a highly nonlinear system, the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is controlled by various parameters. If the effects of all parameters are considered during the performance optimization, low working efficiency and waste of resources will be caused. The development [...] Read more.

As a highly nonlinear system, the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is controlled by various parameters. If the effects of all parameters are considered during the performance optimization, low working efficiency and waste of resources will be caused. The development of sensitivity analysis for parameters can not only exclude the parameters which have slight effects on the system, but also provide the reasonable setting ranges of boundary values for simulation of performance optimization. Therefore, sensitivity analysis of parameters is considered as one of the methods to optimize the fuel cell performance. According to the actual operating conditions of PEMFC, the fluctuation ranges of seven sets of parameters affecting the output performance of PEMFC are determined, namely cell operating temperature, anode/cathode temperature, anode/cathode pressure, and anode/cathode mass flow rate. Then, the control variable method is used to qualitatively analyze the sensitivity of main parameters and combines with the Monte Carlo method to obtain the sensitivity indexes of the insensitive parameters under the specified current density. The results indicate that among these parameters, the working temperature of the fuel cell is the most sensitive to the output performance under all working conditions, whereas the inlet temperature is the least sensitive within the range of deviation. Moreover, the cloud maps of water content distribution under the fluctuation of three more sensitive parameters are compared; the results verify the simulated data and further reveal the reasons for performance changes. The workload of PEMFC performance optimization will be reduced based on the obtained results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies for PEM Fuel Cells in Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles)

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