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Recycling
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Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials
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Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials

A special issue of Recycling (ISSN 2313-4321).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 70836

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sascha Nowak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
MEET Battery Research Center, University of Münster, Corrensstrasse 46, 48149 Münster, Germany
Interests: gas chromatography; high-performance liquid chromatography; ion chromatography; capillary electrophoresis; mass spectrometry; sample preparation; solid-phase extraction and microextraction; ionic liquids; battery electrolytes; lithium ion batteries
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The widespread use of lithium ion batteries (LIBs) in a multitude of industrial and private applications leads to the need of recycling and reutilizing their constituent components. On the one hand, this necessity is economically driven by the prices for the applied metals, which are significant through the high Ni and Co contents. On the other hand, battery recycling is encouraged by legislation, mainly because of risks to human health or the environment deriving from hazardous battery constituents such as transition metals or electrolyte components. A special focus will also be on recycling concepts for next-generation materials and chemistries.

We would like to invite colleagues to contribute with original research articles and reviews to the present Special Issue on the latest trends in recycling of LIBs and related systems.

Dr. Sascha Nowak
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Recycling is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • recycling of lithium ion batteries
  • recycling of next-generation materials
  • 2nd life of lithium ion batteries
  • recovery
  • critical metals

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 80138 KiB  
Article
An Approach for Automated Disassembly of Lithium-Ion Battery Packs and High-Quality Recycling Using Computer Vision, Labeling, and Material Characterization
by Merle Zorn, Christina Ionescu, Domenic Klohs, Konstantin Zähl, Niklas Kisseler, Alexandra Daldrup, Sigrid Hams, Yun Zheng, Christian Offermanns, Sabine Flamme, Christoph Henke, Achim Kampker and Bernd Friedrich
Recycling 2022, 7(4), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7040048 - 20 Jul 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7965
Abstract
A large number of battery pack returns from electric vehicles (EV) is expected for the next years, which requires economically efficient disassembly capacities. This cannot be met through purely manual processing and, therefore, needs to be automated. The variance of different battery pack [...] Read more.
A large number of battery pack returns from electric vehicles (EV) is expected for the next years, which requires economically efficient disassembly capacities. This cannot be met through purely manual processing and, therefore, needs to be automated. The variance of different battery pack designs in terms of (non-) solvable fitting technology and superstructures complicate this. In order to realize an automated disassembly, a computer vision pipeline is proposed. The approach of instance segmentation and point cloud registration is applied and validated within a demonstrator grasping busbars from the battery pack. To improve the sorting of the battery pack components to achieve high-quality recycling after the disassembly, a labeling system containing the relevant data (e.g., cathode chemistry) about the battery pack is proposed. In addition, the use of sensor-based sorting technologies for peripheral components of the battery pack is evaluated. For this purpose, components such as battery pack and module housings of multiple manufacturers were investigated for their variation in material composition. At the current stage, these components are usually produced as composites, so that, for a high-quality recycling, a pre-treatment may be necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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15 pages, 3821 KiB  
Article
Effect of Graphite on the Recovery of Valuable Metals from Spent Li-Ion Batteries in Baths of Hot Metal and Steel
by Elsayed Mousa, Xianfeng Hu and Guozhu Ye
Recycling 2022, 7(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7010005 - 03 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3559
Abstract
The recycling of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is highly important to secure the sustainable production of new LIBs and reduce the dependence on virgin resources. The present paper aims to study the smelting behaviour of black mass (BM) from spent [...] Read more.
The recycling of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is highly important to secure the sustainable production of new LIBs and reduce the dependence on virgin resources. The present paper aims to study the smelting behaviour of black mass (BM) from spent LIBs and investigate the effect of graphite on metal recovery in a carbon-saturated hot metal bath and in a low-carbon steel bath. The smelting trials of BM were conducted in a technical scale (150 kg) induction furnace using hot metal and steel scrap at operating temperatures in the range of 1278–1438 °C and 1470–1610 °C, respectively. Two grades of BM were applied in the current study; high-Ni BM and high-Co BM. Parts of both grades of the BM were briquettes to enhance the direct reduction of metal oxides with embedded graphite and to reduce the dust generation during loading into the furnace. The briquette BM was charged to carbon-saturated hot metal bath while the other part of the BM was subjected to de-coking in a muffle furnace in an oxidising atmosphere to remove graphite (37–39%) and to concentrate the valuable metals in the BM. The de-coked BM was loaded directly, without the need for the briquette, to the low-carbon steel bath. The results indicated that smelting of the de-coked BM in a steel bath is more efficient in metal recovery than the smelting of the corresponding briquette BM in a molten hot metal bath. The highest recovery rate of Co, Ni and Cu (98–99%) was obtained by smelting de-coked high-Co BM in a low-carbon molten steel bath, while the lowest recovery rate (38–55%) was obtained by smelting the briquette high-Ni BM in the carbon-saturated hot metal bath. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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16 pages, 3373 KiB  
Article
Critical Evaluation of the Potential of Organic Acids for the Environmentally Friendly Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Eva Gerold, Clemens Schinnerl and Helmut Antrekowitsch
Recycling 2022, 7(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7010004 - 31 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5136
Abstract
The need to recover valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is undisputed. However, the environment and the climate are also affected by emissions from the recycling processes. Therefore, the call for environmentally friendly recycling methods is currently louder than ever. In the [...] Read more.
The need to recover valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is undisputed. However, the environment and the climate are also affected by emissions from the recycling processes. Therefore, the call for environmentally friendly recycling methods is currently louder than ever. In the field of hydrometallurgical recovery of metals from spent LIBs, inorganic acids have so far proved to be an effective, but environmentally problematic, leaching agent, since the pollution of wastewater by high salt loads and the emission of toxic gases cannot be avoided. This has recently led to a trend towards the application of organic acids, as these have significantly more environmentally friendly properties. In order to continue this approach, and to improve it even further from an environmental point of view, this work focuses on the utilization of low leaching temperatures in combination with organic acids for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. This can drastically reduce the required energy demand. Furthermore, attention is paid to higher (50–100 g·L−1) solid-liquid ratios, which are indispensable, especially with regard to the economic establishment of the tested process. The experimental verification of the feasibility using citric, oxalic, and formic acid showed the possibility of an efficient recovery of cobalt, nickel, and lithium. In particular, citric acid in combination with hydrogen peroxide as a reducing agent appears to be a suitable and environmentally friendly alternative to classical inorganic acids, even at low process temperatures, for the hydrometallurgical recycling of lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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18 pages, 2716 KiB  
Article
Direct Recycling R&D at the ReCell Center
by Linda Gaines, Qiang Dai, John T. Vaughey and Samuel Gillard
Recycling 2021, 6(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020031 - 13 May 2021
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 18143
Abstract
The expected rapid growth in electric vehicle deployment will inevitably be followed by a corresponding rise in the supply of end-of-life vehicles and their lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The batteries may be reused, but will eventually be spent and provide a potential domestic resource [...] Read more.
The expected rapid growth in electric vehicle deployment will inevitably be followed by a corresponding rise in the supply of end-of-life vehicles and their lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The batteries may be reused, but will eventually be spent and provide a potential domestic resource that can help supply materials for future battery production. However, commercial recycling processes depend on profits from recovery of cobalt, use of which is being reduced in new cathode chemistries. The U.S. Department of Energy, therefore, established the ReCell Center in early 2019 to develop robust LIB recycling technology that would be economical even for batteries that contain no cobalt. The central feature of the technology is recovery of the cathode material with its unique crystalline cathode morphology intact in order to retain its value and functionality. Other materials are recovered as well in order to maximize revenues and minimize waste-handling costs. Analysis and modeling serve to evaluate and compare process options so that we can identify those that will be most economical while still minimizing energy use and environmental impacts. This paper provides background and describes highlights of the center’s first 2 years of operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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15 pages, 6729 KiB  
Article
Phytoremediation of Soil Contaminated with Lithium Ion Battery Active Materials—A Proof-of-Concept Study
by Jonas Henschel, Maximilian Mense, Patrick Harte, Marcel Diehl, Julius Buchmann, Fabian Kux, Lukas Schlatt, Uwe Karst, Andreas Hensel, Martin Winter and Sascha Nowak
Recycling 2020, 5(4), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling5040026 - 10 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5899
Abstract
The lithium-ion battery is the most powerful energy storage technology for portable and mobile devices. The enormous demand for lithium-ion batteries is accompanied by an incomplete recycling loop for used lithium-ion batteries and excessive mining of Li and transition metals. The hyperaccumulation of [...] Read more.
The lithium-ion battery is the most powerful energy storage technology for portable and mobile devices. The enormous demand for lithium-ion batteries is accompanied by an incomplete recycling loop for used lithium-ion batteries and excessive mining of Li and transition metals. The hyperaccumulation of plants represents a low-cost and green technology to reduce environmental pollution of landfills and disused mining regions with low environmental regulations. To examine the capabilities of these approaches, the hyperaccumulation selectivity of Alyssum murale for metals in electrode materials (Ni, Co, Mn, and Li) was evaluated. Plants were cultivated in a conservatory for 46 days whilst soils were contaminated stepwise with dissolved transition metal species via the irrigation water. Up to 3 wt% of the metals was quantified in the dry matter of different plant tissues (leaf, stem, root) by means of inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy after 46 days of exposition time. The lateral distribution was monitored by means of micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, revealing different storage behaviors for low and high metal contamination, as well as varying sequestration mechanisms for the four investigated metals. The proof-of-concept regarding the phytoextraction of metals from LiNi0.33Co0.33Mn0.33O2 cathode particles in the soil was demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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Review

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40 pages, 6745 KiB  
Review
Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling in the Circular Economy: A Review
by Md Tasbirul Islam and Usha Iyer-Raniga
Recycling 2022, 7(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7030033 - 28 May 2022
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 21677
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries have become a crucial part of the energy supply chain for transportation (in electric vehicles) and renewable energy storage systems. Recycling is considered one of the most effective ways for recovering the materials for spent LIB streams and circulating the material [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries have become a crucial part of the energy supply chain for transportation (in electric vehicles) and renewable energy storage systems. Recycling is considered one of the most effective ways for recovering the materials for spent LIB streams and circulating the material in the critical supply chain. However, few review articles have been published in the research domain of recycling and the circular economy, with most mainly focusing on either recycling methods or the challenges and opportunities in the circular economy for spent LIBs. This paper reviewed 93 articles (66 original research articles and 27 review articles) identified in the Web of Science core collection database. The study showed that publications in the area are increasing exponentially, with many focusing on recycling and recovery-related issues; policy and regulatory affairs received less attention than recycling. Most of the studies were experiments followed by evaluation and planning (as per the categorization made). Pre-treatment processes were widely discussed, which is a critical part of hydrometallurgy and direct physical recycling (DPR). DPR is a promising recycling technique that requires further attention. Some of the issues that require further consideration include a techno-economic assessment of the recycling process, safe reverse logistics, a global EV assessment revealing material recovery potential, and a lifecycle assessment of experiments processes (both in the hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes). Furthermore, the application of the circular business model and associated stakeholders’ engagement, clear and definitive policy guidelines, extended producer responsibility implications, and material tracking, and identification deserve further focus. This study presents several future research directions that would be useful for academics and policymakers taking necessary steps such as product design, integrated recycling techniques, intra-industry stakeholder cooperation, business model development, techno-economic analysis, and others towards achieving a circular economy in the LIB value chain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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14 pages, 272 KiB  
Review
The Necessity of Recycling of Waste Li-Ion Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles as Objects Posing a Threat to Human Health and the Environment
by Agnieszka Sobianowska-Turek, Weronika Urbańska, Anna Janicka, Maciej Zawiślak and Jędrzej Matla
Recycling 2021, 6(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020035 - 01 Jun 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5639
Abstract
The automotive industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the modern economy. Growing customer expectations, implementing solutions related to electromobility, and increasingly stringent legal restrictions in the field of environmental protection, determine the development and introduction of innovative technologies in the field [...] Read more.
The automotive industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the modern economy. Growing customer expectations, implementing solutions related to electromobility, and increasingly stringent legal restrictions in the field of environmental protection, determine the development and introduction of innovative technologies in the field of car production. To power the most modern vehicles that include electric and hybrid cars, packages of various types of lithium-ion cells are used, the number of which is constantly growing. After use, these batteries, due to their complex chemical composition, constitute hazardous waste that is difficult to manage and must be recycled in modern technological lines. The article presents the morphological characteristics of the currently used types of Li-ion cells, and the threats to the safety of people and the environment that may occur in the event of improper use of Li-ion batteries and accumulators have been identified and described on the basis of the Regulation of the European Parliament and Council (EC) No. 1272/2008 of 16 December 2008 and No. 1907/2006 of 18 December 2006 on the classification, labeling and packaging of substances and mixtures and the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemicals (REACH), establishing the European Chemicals Agency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Lithium Ion Batteries and Other Next Generation Materials)
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