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Smart Sensors and Smart Structures
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Smart Sensors and Smart Structures

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 March 2019) | Viewed by 170451

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Qingzhao Kong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
Interests: embedded sensors; piezoelectric sensors; smart structures; damage detection; ultrasonic sensors; nondestructive testing; structural health monitoring; intelligent civil structures
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Hongwei Ma

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil Engineering, Dongguan University of Technology, Dongguan, China
Interests: ultrasonic transducers; guided waves; smart structures; damage detection; piezoelectric sensors; strain sensors; surface bonded sensors; nondestructive testing; structural health monitoring; intelligent civil structures

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Past decades have witnessed the rapid development of sensors, including smart sensors [1], the sensors that are based on smart materials, such as piezoceramics [2], PVDFs [3], fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), and electrostrictive materials among others. On the other hand, traditional sensors, such as strain gages, thermal couples, pressure transducers, and displacement sensors, are becoming intelligent with integration with a microprocessor, a communication module, and an energy harvesting system. Recently, we also see an increasing number of smart sensors that are enabled by various nanotechnologies. An equal progress has been made on the actuator front. Solid state actuators, such as shape memory alloys [4], shape memory polymers, magnetostrictive materials [5], magnetic shape memory materials, and piezoceramics, have migrated from military/space applications to industrial and consumer applications. Meanwhile, a new class of smart fluids materials, such as magneto-rheological (MR) fluids and electrical–rheological (ER) fluids, have emerged and enable a new class of semi-active control devices, such MR dampers and ER dampers, of which the damping properties can be actively controlled. These smart sensors and smart devices are often integrated with various structures [6] to form so-called smart structures, which possess the ability to sense or/and to respond to environmental or structural changes in a pre-defined way. With the developments in microprocessor technology, wireless communications, and sensor networks, smart sensors, and smart structures are finding more and more applications in structural health monitoring [7] and structural control [8] in aerospace engineering, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, and other disciplines. This Special Issue is dedicated to recent rapid developments in smart sensors, smart structures and applications.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Fiber optic sensors, including fiber Bragg gratings, and applications.
  • Piezoceramic transducers and applications.
  • Ultrasonic transducers and applications.
  • Structural health monitoring: damage detection and localization.
  • Structural Impact monitoring: detection and localization.
  • Smart sensors and sensor network
  • Energy harvesting
  • Active sensing
  • Characterization and modelling of solid materials.
  • Shape memory alloys and applications.
  • Shape memory polymers and applications
  • Structural shape control
  • Structural vibration control
  • Smart composite materials and smart composite structures
  • Nanotechnology enabled smart sensors and smart structures.

Dr. Gangbing Song
Dr. Qingzhao Kong
Dr. Hongwei Ma
Guest Editors

References:
  1. Song, G., Li, W., Wang, B. and Ho, S.C.M., 2017. A review of rock bolt monitoring using smart sensors. Sensors, 17(4), p.776.
  2. Lu, G., Feng, Q., Li, Y., Wang, H. and Song, G., 2017. Characterization of Ultrasound Energy Diffusion Due to Small-Size Damage on an Aluminum Plate Using Piezoceramic Transducers. Sensors, 17(12), p.2796.
  3. Qi, B., Kong, Q., Qian, H., Patil, D., Lim, I., Li, M., Liu, D. and Song, G., 2018. Study of Impact Damage in PVA-ECC Beam under Low-Velocity Impact Loading Using Piezoceramic Transducers and PVDF Thin-Film Transducers. Sensors, 18(2), p.671.
  4. Patil, D. and Song, G., 2016. Shape memory alloy actuated accumulator for ultra-deepwater oil and gas exploration. Smart Materials and Structures, 25(4), p.045012.
  5. Luo, M., Li, W., Wang, J., Wang, N., Chen, X. and Song, G., 2018. Development of a Novel Guided Wave Generation System Using a Giant Magnetostrictive Actuator for Nondestructive Evaluation. Sensors, 18(3), p.779.
  6. Dumoulin, C. and Deraemaeker, A., 2017. Real-time fast ultrasonic monitoring of concrete cracking using embedded piezoelectric transducers. Smart Materials and Structures, 26(10), p.104006.
  7. Song, G., Wang, C., & Wang, B. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of Civil Structures. Applied Sciences, 2017, 7(8), 789; doi:10.3390/app7080789
  8. Song, G., Cai, S., & Li, H. N. Energy Dissipation and Vibration Control: Modeling, Algorithm, and Devices. Applied Sciences, 2017, 7(8), 801; doi:10.3390/app7080801

Dr. Gangbing Song
Dr. Qingzhao Kong
Dr. Hongwei Ma
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • smart sensors
  • smart actuators
  • smart transducer
  • smart structures
  • piezoceramic materials
  • PVDF
  • energy harvesting
  • fiber optic sensors
  • shape memory alloys
  • shape memory polymers
  • damage detection
  • structural health monitoring
  • smart composite materials and smart composite structures
  • structural shape and vibration control

Published Papers (37 papers)

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20 pages, 8655 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Debonding Detection for Rectangular CFST Using the MASW Method and Its Physical Mechanism Analysis at the Meso-Level
by Hongbing Chen, Bin Xu, Jiang Wang, Lele Luan, Tianmin Zhou, Xin Nie and Yi-Lung Mo
Sensors 2019, 19(12), 2778; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19122778 - 20 Jun 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3502
Abstract
In this study, the transient multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) is proposed to detect the existence, the location and the length of interface debonding defects in rectangular concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST). Mesoscale numerical analysis is performed to validate the feasibility of MASW-based [...] Read more.
In this study, the transient multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) is proposed to detect the existence, the location and the length of interface debonding defects in rectangular concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST). Mesoscale numerical analysis is performed to validate the feasibility of MASW-based interfacial debonding detection. Research findings indicate that the coaxial characteristics in the Rayleigh wave disperse at the starting point of the debonding area and gradually restores at the end of the defect. For healthy specimens, the surface wave mode in CFST is closer to the Rayleigh wave. However, it can be treated as a Lamb wave since the steel plate is boundary-free on both sides in the debonding area. The displacement curves are further investigated with forward analysis to obtain the dispersion curves. The mesoscale numerical simulation results indicate that the propagation characteristic of the surface wave is dominated by the debonding defect. The detectability of interfacial debonding detection for rectangular CFST using the MASW approach is numerically verified in this study. The proposed MASW-based nondestructive testing technique can achieve bond-slip detection by comparing the variation trend of the coaxial characteristics in the time-history output signals and the dispersion curves obtained from the forward analysis, for avoiding misjudgment of the experimental observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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13 pages, 3103 KiB  
Article
Debonding Damage Detection in CFRP Plate-Strengthened Steel Beam Using Electromechanical Impedance Technique
by Bin Wang, Yongfeng Sun, Yunzhang Li and Chuan Zhang
Sensors 2019, 19(10), 2296; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102296 - 18 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2984
Abstract
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer materials are widely applied in structure strengthened engineering because of the many advantages of carbon fiber reinforced polymer. However, the debonding damage between the carbon fiber reinforced polymer and host structures occurs frequently, which might lead to the brittle [...] Read more.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer materials are widely applied in structure strengthened engineering because of the many advantages of carbon fiber reinforced polymer. However, the debonding damage between the carbon fiber reinforced polymer and host structures occurs frequently, which might lead to the brittle failure of structure components, especially flexural ones. In this paper, an electromechanical impedance-based method, an important technique in structural health monitoring, was adopted to detect the debonding damage of carbon fiber reinforced polymer plate-strengthened steel beam by using lead zirconate titanate (PZT) transducers. A carbon fiber reinforced polymer plate-strengthened steel beam specimen was fabricated in the laboratory and two PZT sensors were attached at different locations on the carbon fiber reinforced polymer plate. The impedance signatures with variation of the different degrees of the debonding damage were measured by an impedance analyzer. The root-mean-square deviation method and the cross-correlation coefficient method were used to quantify the correlation between the electromechanical impedance and the debonding damage degree. The results reflect that an electromechanical impedance-based structural health monitoring technique can serve as a good method to detect the debonding damage of carbon fiber reinforced polymer plate-strengthened steel structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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14 pages, 6322 KiB  
Article
Monitoring of Epoxy-Grouted Bonding Strength Development between an Anchored Steel Bar and Concrete Using PZT-Enabled Active Sensing
by Jian Jiang, Chuang Hei, Qian Feng and Jinwei Jiang
Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2096; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19092096 - 06 May 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3103
Abstract
Anchored steel bars have been widely used in retrofitting of existing concrete structures. The bonding strength between the anchored steel bar and the concrete is critical to the integrity of the strengthened concrete structure. This paper presents a method to monitor epoxy-grouted bonding [...] Read more.
Anchored steel bars have been widely used in retrofitting of existing concrete structures. The bonding strength between the anchored steel bar and the concrete is critical to the integrity of the strengthened concrete structure. This paper presents a method to monitor epoxy-grouted bonding strength development by using a piezoceramic-enabled active sensing technique. One concrete beam with an anchored steel bar was involved in the monitoring test, and two concrete beams with six anchored steel bars were used in the pull-out test. To enable the active sensing, a Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) patch was bonded to the surface of the exposed end, and piezoceramic smart aggregates were embedded in each concrete specimen. During the monitoring experiment, signals from PZT sensors and smart aggregates were acquired at intervals of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 min. In addition, a pull-out test was performed on each of the remaining six anchored steel bars in the two concrete beams, while the signal was recorded in the test. Furthermore, a wavelet packet analysis was applied to analyze the received signal energies to investigate the bonding strength development between the concrete and the anchored steel bar during the epoxy solidification process. The test results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in monitoring the bonding strength development between the anchored steel bar and the concrete, using the PZT-enabled active sensing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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19 pages, 10585 KiB  
Article
Looseness Monitoring of Bolted Spherical Joint Connection Using Electro-Mechanical Impedance Technique and BP Neural Networks
by Jing Xu, Jinhui Dong, Hongnan Li, Chunwei Zhang and Siu Chun Ho
Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1906; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081906 - 22 Apr 2019
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5852
Abstract
The bolted spherical joint (BSJ) has wide applications in various space grid structures. The bar and the bolted sphere are connected by the high-strength bolt inside the joint. High-strength bolt is invisible outside the joint, which causes the difficulty in monitoring the bolt [...] Read more.
The bolted spherical joint (BSJ) has wide applications in various space grid structures. The bar and the bolted sphere are connected by the high-strength bolt inside the joint. High-strength bolt is invisible outside the joint, which causes the difficulty in monitoring the bolt looseness. Moreover, the bolt looseness leads to the reduction of the local stiffness and bearing capacity for the structure. In this regard, this study used the electro-mechanical impedance (EMI) technique and back propagation neural networks (BPNNs) to monitor the bolt looseness inside the BSJ. Therefore, a space grid specimen having bolted spherical joints and tubular bars was considered for experimental evaluation. Different torques levels were applied on the sleeve to represent different looseness degrees of joint connection. As the torque levels increased, the looseness degrees of joint connection increased correspondingly. The lead zirconate titanate (PZT) patch was used and integrated with the tubular bar due to its strong piezoelectric effect. The root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) of the conductance signatures for the PZT patch were used as the looseness-monitoring indexes. Taking RMSD values of sub-frequency bands and the looseness degrees as inputs and outputs respectively, the BPNNs were trained and tested in twenty repeated experiments. The experimental results show that the formation of the bolt looseness can be detected according to the changes of looseness-monitoring indexes, and the degree of bolt looseness by the trained BPNNs. Overall, this research demonstrates that the proposed structural health monitoring (SHM) technique is feasible for monitoring the looseness of bolted spherical connection in space grid structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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25 pages, 4205 KiB  
Article
Damage Detection and Evaluation for an In-Service Shield Tunnel Based on the Monitored Increment of Neutral Axis Depth Using Long-Gauge Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
by Sheng Shen, Huaxin Lv and Sheng-Lan Ma
Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1840; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081840 - 18 Apr 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2806
Abstract
It is difficult to detect and evaluate the structural damage in a shield tunnel during operation because many traditional techniques based on the observation of vibrations are limited in daily monitoring in tunnels. Thus, the curvature radius of a static longitudinal settlement curve [...] Read more.
It is difficult to detect and evaluate the structural damage in a shield tunnel during operation because many traditional techniques based on the observation of vibrations are limited in daily monitoring in tunnels. Thus, the curvature radius of a static longitudinal settlement curve is used to identify the residual health and safety of an in-service shield tunnel. However, there are still two problems. The curvature radius is suitable for a qualitative judgment rather than a quantitative evaluation for longitudinal damage detection. Moreover, the curvature radius, which is calculated from the measured settlements of three neighboring points, gives an average damage degree in a wide scope only and is difficult to use to identify the damage’s precise location. By means of the analysis of three kinds of longitudinal failure modes in a shield tunnel, this paper proposes: (1) a damage detection method based on the monitored increment of the neutral axis depth; and (2) an index to evaluate longitudinal damage. The index is composed of the residual ratios of the equivalent flexural stiffness (HFM1) and the equivalent shear stiffness (HFM3). The neutral axis position and the proposed damage index can be determined using long-gauge Fiber Bragg Grating sensors. Results from numerical simulations show that the deviation between the HFM1 and the true value residual ratio of the equivalent flexural stiffness is no more than 1.7%. The HFM3 is equal to its true value in the entire damage process. A loading experiment for a scaled-down model of a shield tunnel using long-gauge Fiber Bragg Grating sensors indicated that the errors in the HFM1 were no more than 5.0% in the case of early damage development (HFM1 ≥ 0.5). The maximum error did not exceed 9.0% even under severe damage conditions in the model. Meanwhile, the HFM3 also coincided with its true value in the entire testing process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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14 pages, 3397 KiB  
Article
RFID-Based Crack Detection of Ultra High-Performance Concrete Retrofitted Beams
by Benjamin Bruciati, Shinae Jang and Pierre Fils
Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1573; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071573 - 01 Apr 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4224
Abstract
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a novel material with multiple known uses and many still yet to be discovered. Recently, the use of encasing welded shear studs in UHPC on the web of corroded steel beams was developed. This creates a bearing force transfer [...] Read more.
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a novel material with multiple known uses and many still yet to be discovered. Recently, the use of encasing welded shear studs in UHPC on the web of corroded steel beams was developed. This creates a bearing force transfer mechanism to bypass the corroded web plate. This new material and its uses come with many uncertainties in the short and long term. Structural health monitoring (SHM) can be a tool to observe the development. Specifically, radio frequency technology (RFID) can be used. RFID has existed commercially since the 1960s and has been used as a crack sensor before, but never with UHPC. RFID-based crack sensing is being used to monitor the UHPC retrofit. A crack is simulated on the UHPC specimen and then a commercial, low cost tag is secured. Using backscatter power, the tag reads the crack existence and its increasing volume with every new damage stage. Using a damage index, comparing the uncracked and each cracked stage, this method is not restricted to the raw received signal strength indicator (RSSI), which could be different at each tag. With this sensor, the small cracks that occur in UHPC during its creation can be monitored to ensure the capacity of the retrofitting is maintained. The tested RFID-based crack sensor can be used on various other forms of UHPC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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18 pages, 6371 KiB  
Article
Online Monitoring and Prediction of Thermo-Mechanics of AFP Based Thermoplastic Composites
by Ebrahim Oromiehie, Nilanjan Das Chakladar, Ginu Rajan and B. Gangadhara Prusty
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061310 - 15 Mar 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4342
Abstract
Precision sensing in the characterization of complex additive manufacturing processes such as the Automated Fibre Placement (AFP) technique is important since the process involves a significant level of uncertainty in terms of quality and integrity of the manufactured product. These uncertainties can be [...] Read more.
Precision sensing in the characterization of complex additive manufacturing processes such as the Automated Fibre Placement (AFP) technique is important since the process involves a significant level of uncertainty in terms of quality and integrity of the manufactured product. These uncertainties can be monitored by embedding optical fibre Bragg grating (FBGs) sensors which provide accurate and simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature during the AFP process. The embedded sensors have been shown to remain resilient in continuous health monitoring after manufacturing. The thermal history obtained from the FBG sensors demonstrates a reduction of temperature on the bottom ply by up to 25% when the plies are laid one above the other. A numerical tool is developed to identify the physical parameters which may be responsible for the rise/fall of the temperature during ply layup. The numerical findings agree well with the sensor data and is extended to capture a breadth of parametric studies through the layup simulation. The model provides a comprehensive insight to the characteristics of the laid and the laying ply from a thermo-mechanics perspective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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14 pages, 3787 KiB  
Article
Feasibility Study of a New Cherenkov Detector for Improving Volcano Muography
by Domenico Lo Presti, Giuseppe Gallo, Danilo L. Bonanno, Daniele G. Bongiovanni, Fabio Longhitano and Santo Reito
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051183 - 08 Mar 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3570
Abstract
Muography is an expanding technique for internal structure investigation of large volume object, such as pyramids, volcanoes and also underground cavities. It is based on the attenuation of muon flux through the target in a way similar to the attenuation of X-ray flux [...] Read more.
Muography is an expanding technique for internal structure investigation of large volume object, such as pyramids, volcanoes and also underground cavities. It is based on the attenuation of muon flux through the target in a way similar to the attenuation of X-ray flux through the human body for standard radiography. Muon imaging have to face with high background level, especially compared with the tiny near horizontal muon flux. In this paper the authors propose an innovative technique based on the measurement of Cherenkov radiation by Silicon photo-multipliers arrays to be integrated in a standard telescope for muography applications. Its feasibility study was accomplished by means of Geant4 simulations for the measurement of the directionality of cosmic-ray muons. This technique could be particularly useful for the suppression of background noise due to back-scattered particles whose incoming direction is likely to be wrongly reconstructed. The results obtained during the validation study of the technique principle confirm the ability to distinguish the arrival direction of muons with an efficiency higher than 98% above 1 GeV. In addition, a preliminary study on the tracking performance of the presented technique was introduced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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18 pages, 7674 KiB  
Article
Vibration Suppression of Wind/Traffic/Bridge Coupled System Using Multiple Pounding Tuned Mass Dampers (MPTMD)
by Xinfeng Yin, Gangbing Song and Yang Liu
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051133 - 06 Mar 2019
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 4610
Abstract
Dynamic responses of highway bridges induced by wind and stochastic traffic loads usually exceed anticipated values, and tuned mass dampers (TMDs) have been extensively applied to suppress dynamic responses of bridge structures. In this study, a new type of TMD system named pounding [...] Read more.
Dynamic responses of highway bridges induced by wind and stochastic traffic loads usually exceed anticipated values, and tuned mass dampers (TMDs) have been extensively applied to suppress dynamic responses of bridge structures. In this study, a new type of TMD system named pounding tuned mass damper (PTMD) was designed with a combination of a tuned mass and a viscoelastic layer covered delimiter for impact energy dissipation. Comprehensive numerical simulations of the wind/traffic/bridge coupled system with multiple PTMDs (MPTMDs) were performed. The coupled equations were established by combining the equations of motion of both the bridge and vehicles in traffic. For the purpose of comparing the suppressing effectiveness, the parameter study of the different numbers and locations, mass ratio, and pounding stiffness of MPTMDs were studied. The simulations showed that the number of MPTMDs and mass ratio are both significant in suppressing the wind/traffic/bridge coupled vibration; however, the pounding stiffness is not sensitive in suppressing the bridge vibration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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23 pages, 15821 KiB  
Article
Automated Modal Analysis for Tracking Structural Change during Construction and Operation Phases
by Jun Teng, De-Hui Tang, Xiao Zhang, Wei-Hua Hu, Samir Said and Rolf. G. Rohrmann
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040927 - 22 Feb 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3163
Abstract
The automated modal analysis (AMA) technique has attracted significant interest over the last few years, because it can track variations in modal parameters and has the potential to detect structural changes. In this paper, an improved density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise [...] Read more.
The automated modal analysis (AMA) technique has attracted significant interest over the last few years, because it can track variations in modal parameters and has the potential to detect structural changes. In this paper, an improved density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) is introduced to clean the abnormal poles in a stabilization diagram. Moreover, the optimal system model order is also discussed to obtain more stable poles. A numerical simulation and a full-scale experiment of an arch bridge are carried out to validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. Subsequently, the continuous dynamic monitoring system of the bridge and the proposed algorithm are implemented to track the structural changes during the construction phase. Finally, the artificial neural network (ANN) is used to remove the temperature effect on modal frequencies so that a health index can be constructed under operational conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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12 pages, 1854 KiB  
Article
Prelinearized Class-B Power Amplifier for Piezoelectric Transducers and Portable Ultrasound Systems
by Hojong Choi
Sensors 2019, 19(2), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19020287 - 12 Jan 2019
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4176
Abstract
Portable ultrasound systems typically suffer from unwanted heat and limited battery life, resulting in reduced system performance or the applicable number of piezoelectric transducer elements. This can be a bottleneck in widely used portable ultrasound systems. Class-A power amplifiers are typically used in [...] Read more.
Portable ultrasound systems typically suffer from unwanted heat and limited battery life, resulting in reduced system performance or the applicable number of piezoelectric transducer elements. This can be a bottleneck in widely used portable ultrasound systems. Class-A power amplifiers are typically used in portable ultrasound systems. However, unwanted heat dissipation needs to be reduced by using large cooling fans and heat pipe structures. To reduce unwanted heat, class-B power amplifiers may be a possible solution. However, the non-linearity of class-B power amplifiers could limit their integration with piezoelectric transducers because non-linearity in the high-voltage output of the power amplifiers deteriorates the sensitivity of portable ultrasound systems. To improve the linearity of the power amplifier, we developed prelinearized class-B power amplifiers for piezoelectric transducers and portable ultrasound systems. To verify our proposed method, we compared the performances of class-B and prelinearized class-B power amplifiers in their pulse-echo responses. Therefore, prelinearized class-B power amplifiers are a possible solution to produce better echo signal performance in piezoelectric transducers and portable ultrasound systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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17 pages, 5231 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study for Damage Identification of Storage Tanks by Adding Virtual Masses
by Jilin Hou, Pengfei Wang, Tianyu Jing and Łukasz Jankowski
Sensors 2019, 19(2), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19020220 - 09 Jan 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3029
Abstract
This research proposes a damage identification approach for storage tanks that is based on adding virtual masses. First, the frequency response function of a structure with additional virtual masses is deduced based on the Virtual Distortion Method (VDM). Subsequently, a Finite Element (FE) [...] Read more.
This research proposes a damage identification approach for storage tanks that is based on adding virtual masses. First, the frequency response function of a structure with additional virtual masses is deduced based on the Virtual Distortion Method (VDM). Subsequently, a Finite Element (FE) model of a storage tank is established to verify the proposed method; the relation between the added virtual masses and the sensitivity of the virtual structure is analyzed to determine the optimal mass and the corresponding frequency with the highest sensitivity with respect to potential damages. Thereupon, the damage can be localized and quantified by comparing the damage factors of substructures. Finally, an experimental study is conducted on a storage tank. The results confirm that the proposed method is feasible and practical, and that it can be applied for damage identification of storage tanks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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14 pages, 3262 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Bonding Behavior of FRP and Steel Bars in Self-Compacting Concrete Structures Using Acoustic Emission Method
by Bo Di, Jingkai Wang, Haotian Li, Jinhang Zheng, Yu Zheng and Gangbing Song
Sensors 2019, 19(1), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19010159 - 04 Jan 2019
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 6086
Abstract
To extend understanding of the bonding behavior of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) and steel bars in self-compacting concrete (SCC), an experimental series consisting of 36 direct pull-out tests monitored by acoustic emission (AE) were performed in this paper. The test variables involved rebar [...] Read more.
To extend understanding of the bonding behavior of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) and steel bars in self-compacting concrete (SCC), an experimental series consisting of 36 direct pull-out tests monitored by acoustic emission (AE) were performed in this paper. The test variables involved rebar type, bar diameter, embedded length, and polypropylene (PP) fiber volume content. For each test, the pull-out force and free end slip were continuously measured and compared with the corresponding AE signals. It was found that the proposed AE method was effective in detecting the debonding process between the FRP/steel bars and the hosting concrete. The AE signal strength exhibited a good correlation with the actual bond stress-slip relationship measured in each specimen. Based on the AE location technique, the invisible non-uniform distribution of bonding stress along the bar was further revealed, the initial location of damage and the debonding process were captured. Additionally, the contribution of bar-to-concrete load-bearing mechanism (chemical adhesion, friction, and mechanical interlocking) to sustain the pull-out force was effectively clarified by studying the collected signals in the frequency domain of AE methods. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed AE method has potential to detect the debonding damage of FRP/steel bar reinforced SCC structures accurately. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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21 pages, 6892 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation and Experimental Study of a Simplified Force-Displacement Relationship in Superelastic SMA Helical Springs
by Bin Huang, Hongwang Lv and Yang Song
Sensors 2019, 19(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19010050 - 23 Dec 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4353
Abstract
This paper proposes a new force-displacement model for superelastic shape memory alloy (SMA) springs under complex loading and unloading. For the SMA wires used to make superelastic springs, a new multilinear constitutive model based on a modification of the 1D Motahari model is [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a new force-displacement model for superelastic shape memory alloy (SMA) springs under complex loading and unloading. For the SMA wires used to make superelastic springs, a new multilinear constitutive model based on a modification of the 1D Motahari model is developed. In the modified model, the stress-strain relation curves are changed to fit the experimental results. Furthermore, the established force-displacement relationship of the springs considers the impact of not only the torque but also the moment on the cross sections of the SMA wires. Afterwards, a series of tension tests are performed on four NiTi helical spring specimens under various loading conditions. From the numerical simulations and experimental results, it is shown that, compared with the force-displacement curves for the SMA springs simulated by the Motahari model, those simulated by the proposed model can better approximate the experimental results. The new model inherits the advantage of simple computation of the multilinear constitutive model and can predict the force-displacement relation for superelastic SMA springs very well. Furthermore, due to the self-sensing properties of the SMA springs, the new model is very significant for establishing a new strategy for measuring the displacements or forces of SMA springs under complex loading and unloading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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16 pages, 8019 KiB  
Article
A Fiber Bragg-Grating-Based Miniature Sensor for the Fast Detection of Soil Moisture Profiles in Highway Slopes and Subgrades
by Dingfeng Cao, Hongyuan Fang, Fuming Wang, Honghu Zhu and Mengya Sun
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4431; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124431 - 14 Dec 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3402
Abstract
A fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based aluminum oxide tube packed sensor (ATPS) was developed for the fast detection of the soil moisture profile in highway slopes and subgrades. The novel ATPS consists of an aluminum oxide tube with a diameter of 5 mm, an [...] Read more.
A fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based aluminum oxide tube packed sensor (ATPS) was developed for the fast detection of the soil moisture profile in highway slopes and subgrades. The novel ATPS consists of an aluminum oxide tube with a diameter of 5 mm, an optical fiber containing a quasi-distributed FBG sensors, a “U”-shaped resistance wire, and a flange. There are four 0.9-mm diameter holes in the ATPS. Laboratory experiments were carried out to calibrate the relationship between the thermal response of ATPS and the soil moisture content. Two laboratory rainfall validation model tests were performed to validate the ATPS for capturing the soil moisture profile in highway slopes and subgrades. During the validations, the accuracy of the ATPS was quantified, and water infiltration through grassy and grassless ground surfaces were investigated. The calibrations indicate that the ATPS can detect and record real-time changes in the highway slope and subgrade moisture after rainfall, and reveal the most dangerous zones that occur at the connection between different construction materials. The average measurement accuracy of soil moisture monitoring was 0.015 m3/m3. Please note that the connection is where cracks form easily and the soil hydraulic conductivity increases significantly. The test results also indicate that grassy cover (lawn) significantly prevents water infiltration during the first few minutes of rainfall (twelve minutes in this study), after which, however, the infiltration rate drops sharply. The influence of lawn on water infiltration depends on the soil structure, hydraulic conductivity, and rainfall time. In summary, due to its small size and fast detection, the ATPS is a portable probe that can be used for moisture monitoring in highway slopes and subgrades. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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17 pages, 5950 KiB  
Article
Leak Detection in Water Pipes Using Submersible Optical Optic-Based Pressure Sensor
by Leslie Wong, Ravin Deo, Suranji Rathnayaka, Benjamin Shannon, Chunshun Zhang, Wing Kong Chiu, Jayantha Kodikara and Hera Widyastuti
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4192; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124192 - 30 Nov 2018
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 11198
Abstract
Leakage is undesirable in water distribution networks, as leaky pipes are financially costly both to water utilities and consumers. The ability to detect, locate, and quantify leaks can significantly improve the service delivered. Optical fibre sensors (OFS) have previously demonstrated their capabilities in [...] Read more.
Leakage is undesirable in water distribution networks, as leaky pipes are financially costly both to water utilities and consumers. The ability to detect, locate, and quantify leaks can significantly improve the service delivered. Optical fibre sensors (OFS) have previously demonstrated their capabilities in performing real-time and continuous monitoring of pipe strength leak detection. However, the challenge remains due to the high labour cost and time-consuming process for the installation of optical fibre sensors to existing buried pipelines. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of a submersible optical fibre-based pressure sensor that can be deployed without rigid bonding to the pipeline. This paper presents a set of experiments conducted using the proposed sensing strategy for leak detection. The calibrated optical fibre device was used to monitor the internal water pressure in a pipe with simultaneous verification from a pressure gauge. Two different pressure-based leak detection methods were explored. These leak detection methods were based on hydrostatic and pressure transient responses of the optical fibre pressure sensor. Experimental results aided in evaluating the functionality, reliability, and robustness of the submersible optical fibre pressure sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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14 pages, 5683 KiB  
Article
Detection of Defects in Reinforced Concrete Structures Using Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation with Piezoceramic Transducers and the Time Reversal Method
by Guoqi Zhao, Di Zhang, Lu Zhang and Ben Wang
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4176; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124176 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4584
Abstract
Reinforced concrete is of vital importance in many civil and industrial structural applications. The effective bonding between steel and concrete is the core guarantee of the safe operation of the structures. Corrosion or other interface debonding in steel-concrete is a typical failure mode [...] Read more.
Reinforced concrete is of vital importance in many civil and industrial structural applications. The effective bonding between steel and concrete is the core guarantee of the safe operation of the structures. Corrosion or other interface debonding in steel-concrete is a typical failure mode during the long service period of the structures, which can severely reduce the load-bearing capacity. The Non-destructive Evaluation technique has been applied to civil engineering structures in recent years. This paper investigates the evaluation of reinforced concrete structures that have interface defects, including the cross-sectional loss and cracks, by using the piezoceramic induced ultrasonic wave and time reversal method. Ultrasonic wave is used as actuating wave to obtain the signals with defect information. Time reversal method is applied to localize and characterize defect along the interface of the steel-concrete and to image the defect through the cross-sectional scanning. Experiments were conducted to perform Nondestructive Evaluation by using six reinforced concrete components with different levels of defects. The invisible damages were made by the cutting part of the steel and embedding a table tennis ball inside concrete structures. The results show that the time reversed method can locate and evaluate the defects along the steel reinforced concrete, and the obtained defect images at the cross-section of the concrete structure are accurate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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28 pages, 9090 KiB  
Article
Structural Health Monitoring of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge Based on Statistical Pattern Recognition of Continuous Dynamic Measurements over 14 years
by Wei-Hua Hu, De-Hui Tang, Jun Teng, Samir Said and Rolf. G. Rohrmann
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4117; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124117 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5296
Abstract
This work describes a vibration-based structural health monitoring of a prestressed-concrete box girder bridge on the A100 Highway in Berlin by applying statistical pattern recognition technique to a huge amount of data continuously collected by an integrated monitoring system during the period from [...] Read more.
This work describes a vibration-based structural health monitoring of a prestressed-concrete box girder bridge on the A100 Highway in Berlin by applying statistical pattern recognition technique to a huge amount of data continuously collected by an integrated monitoring system during the period from 2000 to 2013. Firstly, the general condition and potential damage of the bridge is described. Then, the dynamic properties are extracted from 20 velocity sensors. Environmental variability captured by five thermal transducers and traffic intensity approximately estimated by strain measurements are also reported. Nonlinear influences of temperature on natural frequencies are observed. Subsequently, the measurements during the first year are used to build a baseline health index. The multiple linear regression (MLR) method is used to characterize the nonlinear relationship between natural frequencies and temperatures. The Euclidean distance of the residual errors is calculated to build a statistical health index. Finally, the indices extracted from the following years gradually deviate; which may indicate structural deterioration due to loss of prestress in the prestressed tendons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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23 pages, 5477 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Prestress Loss Distribution during Pre-Tensioning and Post-Tensioning Using Long-Gauge Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
by Sheng Shen, Yao Wang, Sheng-Lan Ma, Di Huang, Zhi-Hong Wu and Xiao Guo
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4106; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124106 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5099
Abstract
Prestress loss evaluation in prestressed strands is essential for prestressed structures. However, the sensors installed outside the duct can only measure the total prestress loss. The sensors attached on strands inside the duct also have several problems, such as inadequate durability in an [...] Read more.
Prestress loss evaluation in prestressed strands is essential for prestressed structures. However, the sensors installed outside the duct can only measure the total prestress loss. The sensors attached on strands inside the duct also have several problems, such as inadequate durability in an aggressive environment and vulnerability to damage during tensioning. This paper proposes a new installation method for long-gauge fiber Bragg grating (LFBG) sensors to prevent accidental damage. Then the itemized prestress losses were determined in each stage of the pre-tensioning and post-tensioning according to the LFBG measurements. We verified the applicability of the LFBG sensors for prestress monitoring and the accuracy of the proposed prestress loss calculation method during pre-tensioning and post-tensioning. In the pre-tensioning case, the calculated prestress losses had less deviation from the true losses than those obtained from foil-strain gauges, and the durability of the LFBG sensors was better than foil-strain gauges, whereas in post-tensioning case, the calculated prestress losses were close to those derived from theoretical predictions. Finally, we monitored prestress variation in the strand for 90 days. The itemized prestress losses at each stages of post-tensioning were obtained by the proposed calculation method to show the prospect of the LFBG sensors in practical evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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20 pages, 16188 KiB  
Article
Prestress Monitoring of a Steel Strand in an Anchorage Connection Using Piezoceramic Transducers and Time Reversal Method
by Xiaoyu Zhang, Liuyu Zhang, Laijun Liu and Linsheng Huo
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 4018; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114018 - 18 Nov 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3564
Abstract
Steel strands are widely used in cable stay or suspension bridges. The safety and stability of steel strands are important issues during their operation period. Steel strand is subjected to various types of prestress loss which loosens the wedge anchorage system, negatively impacting [...] Read more.
Steel strands are widely used in cable stay or suspension bridges. The safety and stability of steel strands are important issues during their operation period. Steel strand is subjected to various types of prestress loss which loosens the wedge anchorage system, negatively impacting the stability of the structure and even leading to severe accidents. In this paper, the authors propose a time reversal (TR) method to monitor the looseness status of the wedge anchorage system by using stress wave based active sensing. As a commonly used piezoceramic material, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) with a strong piezoelectric effect is employed. In the proposed active sensing approach, PZT patches are used as sensors and actuators to monitor the steel strand looseness status. One PZT patch is bonded to the steel strand, one PZT patch is bonded to the wedges, and another PZT patch is bonded to the barrel. There are three different interfaces of the wedge anchorage system to monitor the steel strand looseness status. In the first method, the PZT patch on the steel strand is used as an actuator to generate a stress wave and the PZT patch on the wedge is used as a sensor to detect the propagated waves through the wedge anchorage system. In the second method, the PZT patch on the steel strand is used as an actuator to generate a stress wave and the PZT patch on the barrel is used as a sensor to detect the propagated waves through the wedge anchorage system. In the third method, the PZT patch on the wedges is used as an actuator to generate a stress wave and the PZT patches on the barrel is used as a sensor to detect the propagated waves through the wedge anchorage system, of which the looseness will directly impact the stress wave propagation. The TR method is utilized to analyze the transmitted signal between PZT patches through the wedge anchorage system. Compared with the peak values of the TR focused signals, it can be found that the peak value increases as the wedge anchorage system tightness increases. Therefore, the peak value of the TR focused signal can be used to monitor the tightness of the steel strand. In addition, the experimental results demonstrated the time reversal method’s reliability, sensitivity and anti-noise property. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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18 pages, 4929 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Fatigue Damage of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints Using Piezoceramic Transducers
by Tianyong Jiang, Yaowen Zhang, Lei Wang, Liang Zhang and Gangbing Song
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3973; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113973 - 15 Nov 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4783
Abstract
Modular bridge expansion joints (MBEJs) are commonly used in bridges and are often subjected to fatigue damages, which necessitate fatigue monitoring of MBEJs to ensure the reliable operation of the bridges. In this paper, a stress wave based active sensing approach using piezoceramic [...] Read more.
Modular bridge expansion joints (MBEJs) are commonly used in bridges and are often subjected to fatigue damages, which necessitate fatigue monitoring of MBEJs to ensure the reliable operation of the bridges. In this paper, a stress wave based active sensing approach using piezoceramic transducers is developed to monitor the fatigue damage of MBEJ. A MBEJ involves mainly center beam, edge beam, support bar, support box, sliding bearing, sliding spring, elastomeric strip seal, full-penetration weld and reinforcing plate. In practice, for a MBEJ, the part that is most prone to fatigue damage is the full-penetration weld between the center beam and the support bar. In this paper, a specimen, which is the full-scale center-beam/support-bar (CB/SB) assembly, was designed and fabricated to facilitate the experimental study. The assembly mainly includes center beam, support bar, reinforcing plate, and full-penetration weld. The lead zirconate titanate (PZT) transducer bonded on the support bar was used as the actuator and the PZT transducer mounted on the center beam was as the sensor. Dial indicators were utilized to measure the vertical displacement of the center beam. Two series of tests, including static test, and fatigue test, were performed on the specimen in an alternating fashion. Based on the number of cyclic loading, the experiment was divided into six different stages: 0th cycle (the healthy state), 0.8 million cycles, 1.6 million cycles, 2.4 million cycles, 3.2 million cycles, and 4 million cycles. The signals received by the PZT sensor were analyzed with the help of wavelet packet analysis. In addition, the structure stiffness also was considered as a comparative approach in this paper. Experimental results show that during the fatigue test, the structure stiffness decreases with the number of cycle loading. However, the method can only obtain the fatigue damage impact on the entire structure, and cannot determine the fatigue damage degree of a certain weld. On the other hand, the proposed method can accurately monitor the fatigue damage degree of full-penetration welds. The research results show that the developed piezoceramic enabled active sensing approach can monitor and estimate the fatigue damage in MBEJ in real-time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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17 pages, 9708 KiB  
Article
Research on Detection and Location of Fluid-Filled Pipeline Leakage Based on Acoustic Emission Technology
by Shengshan Pan, Zhengdan Xu, Dongsheng Li and Dang Lu
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3628; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113628 - 25 Oct 2018
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4271
Abstract
Because of the inconvenience of installing sensors in a buried pipeline, an acoustic emission sensor is initially proposed for collecting and analyzing leakage signals inside the pipeline. Four operating conditions of a fluid-filled pipeline are established and a support vector machine (SVM) method [...] Read more.
Because of the inconvenience of installing sensors in a buried pipeline, an acoustic emission sensor is initially proposed for collecting and analyzing leakage signals inside the pipeline. Four operating conditions of a fluid-filled pipeline are established and a support vector machine (SVM) method is used to accurately classify the leakage condition of the pipeline. Wavelet decomposition and empirical mode decomposition (EMD) methods are initially used in denoising these signals to address the problem in which original leakage acoustic emission signals contain too much noise. Signals with more information and energy are then reconstructed. The time-delay estimation method is finally used to accurately locate the leakage source in the pipeline. The results show that by using SVM, wavelet decomposition and EMD methods, leakage detection in a liquid-filled pipe with built-in acoustic emission sensors is effective and accurate and provides a reference value for real-time online monitoring of pipeline operational status with broad application prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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19 pages, 4754 KiB  
Article
Active Thermal Sensing for Bonding Structure Damage Detection of Hidden Frame Glass Curtain Wall
by Xiaobin Hong, Jinfan Lin, Yuan Liu and Weiying Xu
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3594; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113594 - 23 Oct 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3077
Abstract
Adhesive bonded structure damage of hidden frame glass curtain wall will cause falling glass, which threatens the security of people and property. Therefore, the damage detection of the adhesive bonded structure of glass curtain wall has great significance. In this paper, active thermal [...] Read more.
Adhesive bonded structure damage of hidden frame glass curtain wall will cause falling glass, which threatens the security of people and property. Therefore, the damage detection of the adhesive bonded structure of glass curtain wall has great significance. In this paper, active thermal sensing technology for bonding structure damage detection was introduced. Firstly, the thermal wave propagation of bonded structure was analyzed. Second, the simulated annealing algorithm and TracePro simulation were utilized to design the heat source. Thirdly, the platform of active thermal sensing was built, and experiments were conducted. Finally, image fusion enhancement of Laplacian pyramid was utilized to the enhancement process of thermal images. The simulation results showed that the irradiance of the cross-optimization was more uniform, and the uniformity was 17.50% higher than the original design value. The experiments results showed that defects of different sizes and depths can be distinguished. The gray differences of the damages on the depth of 0 mm and 4 mm were 0.025 and 0.045, respectively. The thermal wave testing can detect damage intuitively and rapidly, which is significant for the future research of unmanned detection of bonding structure damage of hidden frame glass curtain wall. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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19 pages, 8426 KiB  
Article
Wear Degree Quantification of Pin Connections Using Parameter-Based Analyses of Acoustic Emissions
by Jingkai Wang, Linsheng Huo, Chunguang Liu and Gangbing Song
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3503; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103503 - 17 Oct 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2746
Abstract
Pin connections are commonly used in many engineering fields, and continuous operation may cause severe wear on the pins and may lead to their eventual fracture, if undetected. However, a reliable nonintrusive real-time method to monitor the wear of pin connections is yet [...] Read more.
Pin connections are commonly used in many engineering fields, and continuous operation may cause severe wear on the pins and may lead to their eventual fracture, if undetected. However, a reliable nonintrusive real-time method to monitor the wear of pin connections is yet to be developed. In this paper, acoustic emission (AE)-based parametric analysis methods, including the logarithm of the cumulative energy (LAE), the logarithm of the slope of cumulative energy (LSCE), the b-value method, the Ib-value method, and the fast Fourier transformation (FFT), were developed to quantify the wear degree of pin connections. The b-value method offers a criterion to quickly judge whether severe wear occurs on a pin connection. To assist the research, an experimental apparatus to accelerate wear test of pin connections was designed and fabricated. The AE sensor, mounted on the test apparatus in a nondestructive manner, is capable of real-time monitoring. The micrographs of the wear of pins, and the surface roughness of pins, verified that the values of the max LAE and the max LSCE became larger as the wear degree of pin connections increased, which means different values of the max LAE and the max LSCE can reflect different wear degree of pin connections. Meanwhile, the results of the micrographs and surface roughness confirmed that the b-value is an effective method to identify severe wear, and the value “1” can be used as a criterion to detect severe damage in different structures. Furthermore, the results of spectrum analysis in the low frequency range showed that the wear frequency was concentrated in the range of 0.01 to 0.02 MHz for the pin connection. This study demonstrated that these methods, developed based on acoustic emission technique, can be utilized in quantifying the wear degree of pin connections in a nondestructive way. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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16 pages, 6315 KiB  
Article
Damage Detection of Concrete-Filled Square Steel Tube (CFSST) Column Joints under Cyclic Loading Using Piezoceramic Transducers
by Juan Zhang, Jindong Xu, Wenqiang Guan and Guofeng Du
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3266; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103266 - 28 Sep 2018
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 3546
Abstract
Concrete-filled square steel tube column (CFSSTC) joints are the most important parts of concrete-filled steel tube frame structures. It is of great significance to study the damage of CFSSTC joints under the seismic loads. In this paper, embedded piezoceramic transducers are used to [...] Read more.
Concrete-filled square steel tube column (CFSSTC) joints are the most important parts of concrete-filled steel tube frame structures. It is of great significance to study the damage of CFSSTC joints under the seismic loads. In this paper, embedded piezoceramic transducers are used to monitor the damage of core concrete of CFSSTC joints under cyclic loading and surface-bonded piezoceramic disks are used to monitor the debonding damage of the steel tube and core concrete of two specimens. The damages of the joints under different loading levels and different loading cycles are evaluated by the received signal of the piezoceramic transducers. The experimental results show that the amplitude of the signal attenuates obviously with the appearance of damage in the joints, and the degree of attenuation increases with the development of the damage. The monitoring results from piezoceramic transducers are basically consistent with the hysteresis loops and skeleton curves of the CFSSTC joints during the cyclic loading. The effectiveness of the piezoceramic transducers are verified by the experimental results in structural health monitoring of the CFSSTC joint under cyclic loading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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12 pages, 3811 KiB  
Article
A Feasibility Study on Timber Moisture Monitoring Using Piezoceramic Transducer-Enabled Active Sensing
by Jicheng Zhang, Yong Li, Yongshui Huang, Jinwei Jiang and Siu-Chun M. Ho
Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3100; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093100 - 14 Sep 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3826
Abstract
In recent years, the piezoceramic transducer-enabled active sensing technique has been extensively applied to structural damage detection and health monitoring, in civil engineering. Being abundant and renewable, timber has been widely used as a building material in many countries. However, one of the [...] Read more.
In recent years, the piezoceramic transducer-enabled active sensing technique has been extensively applied to structural damage detection and health monitoring, in civil engineering. Being abundant and renewable, timber has been widely used as a building material in many countries. However, one of the more challenging applications of timber, in construction, is the potential damage caused by moisture. Increased moisture may cause easier warping of timber components and encourage corrosion of integrated metal members, on top of potentially causing rot and decay. However, despite numerous efforts to inspect and monitor the moisture content of timber, there lacks a method that can provide truly real time, quantitative, and non-invasive measurement of timber moisture. Thus, the research presented in this paper investigated the feasibility of moisture-content monitoring using an active sensing approach, as enabled by a pair of the Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) transducers bonded on the surface of a timber specimen. Using a pair of transducers in an active sensing scheme, one patch generated a designed stress wave, while another patch received the signal. While the active sensing was active, the moisture content of the timber specimen was gradually increased from 0% to 60% with 10% increments. The material properties of the timber correspondingly changed under varying timber moisture content, resulting in a measurable differential in stress wave attenuation rates among the different specimens used. The experimental results indicated that the received signal energy and the moisture content of the timber specimens show a parabolic relationship. Finally, the feasibility and reliability of the presented method, for monitoring timber moisture content, are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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18 pages, 4636 KiB  
Article
Absolute Position Coding Method for Angular Sensor—Single-Track Gray Codes
by Fan Zhang, Hengjun Zhu, Kan Bian, Pengcheng Liu and Jianhui Zhang
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2728; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082728 - 19 Aug 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6347
Abstract
Single-track Gray codes (STGCs) is a type of absolute position coding method for novel angular sensors, because it has single-track property over traditional Gray codes and mono-difference over linear feedback shift register codes. However, given that the coding theory of STGCs is incomplete, [...] Read more.
Single-track Gray codes (STGCs) is a type of absolute position coding method for novel angular sensors, because it has single-track property over traditional Gray codes and mono-difference over linear feedback shift register codes. However, given that the coding theory of STGCs is incomplete, STGC construction is still a challenging task even though it has been defined for more than 20 years. Published coding theories and results on STGCs are about two types of STGC, namely, necklace and self-dual necklace ordering, which are collectively called as k-spaced head STGCs. To find a new code, three constraints on generating sequences are proposed to accelerate the searching algorithm, and the complete searching result of length-6 STGCs is initially obtained. Among the entire 132 length-6 STGCs, two novel types of STGCs with non-k-spaced heads are found, and the basic structures of these codes with the general length n are proposed and defined as twin-necklace and triplet-necklace ordering STGCs. Furthermore, d-plet-necklace ordering STGC, which unifies all the known STGCs by changing the value of d, is also defined. Finally, a single-track absolute encoder prototype is designed to prove that STGCs are as convenient as the traditional position coding methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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16 pages, 7956 KiB  
Article
Distributed Deformation Monitoring for a Single-Cell Box Girder Based on Distributed Long-Gage Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
by Sheng Shen and Shao-Fei Jiang
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2597; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082597 - 08 Aug 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3262
Abstract
Distributed deformation based on fiber Bragg grating sensors or other kinds of strain sensors can be used to monitor bridges during operation. However, most research on distributed deformation monitoring has focused on solid rectangular beams rather than box girders—a kind of typical hollow [...] Read more.
Distributed deformation based on fiber Bragg grating sensors or other kinds of strain sensors can be used to monitor bridges during operation. However, most research on distributed deformation monitoring has focused on solid rectangular beams rather than box girders—a kind of typical hollow beam widely employed in actual bridges. The deformation of a single-cell box girder contains bending deflection and also two additional deformations respectively caused by shear lag and shearing action. This paper revises the improved conjugated beam method (ICBM) based on the long-gage fiber Bragg grating (LFBG) sensors to satisfy the requirements for monitoring the two additional deformations in a single-cell box girder. This paper also proposes a suitable LFBG sensor placement in a box girder to overcome the influence of strain fluctuation on the flange caused by the shear lag effect. Results from numerical simulations show that the theoretical monitoring errors of the revised ICBM are typically 0.3–1.5%, and the maximum error is 2.4%. A loading experiment for a single-cell box gilder monitored by LFBG sensors shows that most of the practical monitoring errors are 6–8% and the maximum error is 11%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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13 pages, 7132 KiB  
Article
A Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)-Enabled Smart Washer for Bolt Pre-Load Measurement: Design, Analysis, Calibration, and Experimental Validation
by Dongdong Chen, Linsheng Huo, Hongnan Li and Gangbing Song
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2586; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082586 - 07 Aug 2018
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 6915
Abstract
A washer is a common structural element that is directly used along the loading path of a bolted connection. Pre-load on a bolted connection directly impacts its load bearing capacity and pre-load monitoring is an important aspect of structural health monitoring (SHM). With [...] Read more.
A washer is a common structural element that is directly used along the loading path of a bolted connection. Pre-load on a bolted connection directly impacts its load bearing capacity and pre-load monitoring is an important aspect of structural health monitoring (SHM). With the change of the pre-load on a bolted connection, the loading force on the washer will change and, therefore, the outer diameter and outer circumferential length of the washer will change. Taking advantage of the high sensitivity and the small size of a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor, we propose an innovative smart washer encircled by an FBG sensor that can directly measure the circumferential strain change and, therefore, the pre-load on the washer. For protection, the FBG is embedded in a pre-machined groove along the circumferential surface of the washer. A theoretical approach is used to derive the linear relationship between the applied load and the circumferential strain of the washer. To validate the functionality of the FBG-enabled smart sensor for in situ bolt pre-load monitoring, a simple but effective testing apparatus is designed and fabricated. The apparatus involves a bolt, the FBG-enabled washer, a metal plate, and a nut. The bolt has an embedded FBG along its axial direction for precise axial strain and, therefore, force measurement. With the calibrated axial force measuring bolt, in situ experiments on the FBG-enabled smart washers are conducted. Experimental results reveal the linear relationship between the pre-load and the wavelength of the FBG sensor encircling the washer. Both analytical and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed novel approach is sensitive to the bolt pre-load and can monitor in real time the bolt looseness in the entire loading range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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13 pages, 2340 KiB  
Article
Effects of Applying Different Resonance Amplitude on the Performance of the Impedance-Based Health Monitoring Technique Subjected to Damage
by Wongi S. Na, Dong-Woo Seo, Byeong-Cheol Kim and Ki-Tae Park
Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2267; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072267 - 13 Jul 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2627
Abstract
Smart materials such as piezoelectric transducers can be used for monitoring the health of building structures. In this study, a structural health monitoring technique known as the electromechanical impedance (EMI) method is investigated. Although the EMI method has the advantage of using a [...] Read more.
Smart materials such as piezoelectric transducers can be used for monitoring the health of building structures. In this study, a structural health monitoring technique known as the electromechanical impedance (EMI) method is investigated. Although the EMI method has the advantage of using a single piezoelectric patch that acts both as the actuator and as the sensor, there are still many issues to be addressed. To further understand the problem, the performance of the EMI method on a structure subjected to progressive damage at different resonance frequency ranges and peak amplitudes was investigated using three different statistical metrics: root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), mean absolute percentage deviation (MAPD) and correlation coefficient deviation (CCD). Metal plates were used throughout the study. The results acquired could be used to further understand the damage identification performance of the EMI method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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27 pages, 17106 KiB  
Article
Impact Monitoring for Aircraft Smart Composite Skins Based on a Lightweight Sensor Network and Characteristic Digital Sequences
by Lei Qiu, Xiaolei Deng, Shenfang Yuan, YongAn Huang and Yuanqiang Ren
Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072218 - 10 Jul 2018
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 5816
Abstract
Due to the growing use of composite materials in aircraft structures, Aircraft Smart Composite Skins (ASCSs) which have the capability of impact monitoring for large-scale composite structures need to be developed. However, the impact of an aircraft composite structure is a random transient [...] Read more.
Due to the growing use of composite materials in aircraft structures, Aircraft Smart Composite Skins (ASCSs) which have the capability of impact monitoring for large-scale composite structures need to be developed. However, the impact of an aircraft composite structure is a random transient event that needs to be monitored on-line continuously. Therefore, the sensor network of an ASCS and the corresponding impact monitoring system which needs to be installed on the aircraft as an on-board device must meet the requirements of light weight, low power consumption and high reliability. To achieve this point, an Impact Region Monitor (IRM) based on piezoelectric sensors and guided wave has been proposed and developed. It converts the impact response signals output from piezoelectric sensors into Characteristic Digital Sequences (CDSs), and then uses a simple but efficient impact region localization algorithm to achieve impact monitoring with light weight and low power consumption. However, due to the large number of sensors of ASCS, the realization of lightweight sensor network is still a key problem to realize an applicable ASCS for on-line and continuous impact monitoring. In this paper, three kinds of lightweight piezoelectric sensor networks including continuous series sensor network, continuous parallel sensor network and continuous heterogeneous sensor network are proposed. They can greatly reduce the lead wires of the piezoelectric sensors of ASCS and they can also greatly reduce the monitoring channels of the IRM. Furthermore, the impact region localization methods, which are based on the CDSs and the lightweight sensor networks, are proposed as well so that the lightweight sensor networks can be applied to on-line and continuous impact monitoring of ASCS with a large number of piezoelectric sensors. The lightweight piezoelectric sensor networks and the corresponding impact region localization methods are validated on the composite wing box of an unmanned aerial vehicle. The accuracy rate of impact region localization is higher than 92%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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18 pages, 4942 KiB  
Article
Deformation Monitoring for Chinese Traditional Timber Buildings Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
by Ni-Lei Li, Shao-Fei Jiang, Ming-Hao Wu, Sheng Shen and Ying Zhang
Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061968 - 19 Jun 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4474
Abstract
The Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensing technique is suitable for a wide variety of measurements, including temperature, pressure, acceleration, liquid level, etc., and has been applied to many bridges and buildings in the past two decades. The fact that the FBG technique can [...] Read more.
The Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensing technique is suitable for a wide variety of measurements, including temperature, pressure, acceleration, liquid level, etc., and has been applied to many bridges and buildings in the past two decades. The fact that the FBG technique can only monitor and measure strain data for most cases when it is used for deformation measurements impedes application of the FBG sensing technique in civil infrastructures. This paper proposes FBG sensing-based deformation monitoring methods that are applicable to monitoring beam deflection, column inclination angle and mortise-tenon joint dislocation for Chinese traditional timber structures. On the basis of improved conjugated beam theory and geometrical trigonometric function relationship, the relationships between the FBG sensing strain values and the deflection of beam, inclination angle of column, as well as the amount of dislocation of mortise-tenon joint are deducted for Chinese traditional buildings. A series of experiments were conducted to verify the applicability and effectiveness of the proposed deformation monitoring methods. The results show that a good agreement is obtained between the values given by the methods proposed in this paper and other methods. This implies that the proposed deformation monitoring methods are applicable and effective in the health monitoring of Chinese traditional timber structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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12 pages, 2685 KiB  
Article
An Improved Heuristic Drift Elimination Method for Indoor Pedestrian Positioning
by Zhihong Deng, Yun Cao, Pengyu Wang and Bo Wang
Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061874 - 07 Jun 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3145
Abstract
Indoor positioning is currently a research hotspot. In recent years, Pedestrian Dead Reckoning (PDR) has been widely used in indoor positioning. However, the positioning error caused by heading drifts will accumulate as the walking distance increases, so some methods need to be used [...] Read more.
Indoor positioning is currently a research hotspot. In recent years, Pedestrian Dead Reckoning (PDR) has been widely used in indoor positioning. However, the positioning error caused by heading drifts will accumulate as the walking distance increases, so some methods need to be used to correct the heading angle. Heuristic Drift Elimination (HDE) is an effective heading correction algorithm, which only uses the information of a building’s dominant directions to reduce the heading error, but it does not apply to the non-dominant direction condition. In this paper, we propose a heading drift suppressing method for the limitation of HDE. Firstly, the method constructs membership functions to judge the pedestrian’s motion according to the result of comprehensive evaluation. Then, it further determines by a threshold condition whether the pedestrian walks along the dominant directions, and a heading error measurement is introduced for heading correction. Finally, we verify by experiments that the proposed method can correct heading angles properly for different conditions, which indicates an adaptability to the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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16 pages, 9390 KiB  
Article
Damage Detection of a Concrete Column Subject to Blast Loads Using Embedded Piezoceramic Transducers
by Kai Xu, Qingshan Deng, Lujun Cai, Siuchun Ho and Gangbing Song
Sensors 2018, 18(5), 1377; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18051377 - 28 Apr 2018
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 5725
Abstract
Some of the most severe structural loadings come in the form of blast loads, which may be caused by severe accidents or even terrorist activities. Most commonly after exposure to explosive forces, a structure will suffer from different degrees of damage, and even [...] Read more.
Some of the most severe structural loadings come in the form of blast loads, which may be caused by severe accidents or even terrorist activities. Most commonly after exposure to explosive forces, a structure will suffer from different degrees of damage, and even progress towards a state of collapse. Therefore, damage detection of a structure subject to explosive loads is of importance. This paper proposes a new approach to damage detection of a concrete column structure subjected to blast loads using embedded piezoceramic smart aggregates (SAs). Since the sensors are embedded in the structure, the proposed active-sensing based approach is more sensitive to internal or through cracks than surface damage. In the active sensing approach, the embedded SAs act as actuators and sensors, that can respectively generate and detect stress waves. If the stress wave propagates across a crack, the energy of the wave attenuates, and the reduction of the energy compared to the healthy baseline is indicative of a damage. With a damage index matrix constructed by signals obtained from an array of SAs, cracks caused by blast loads can be detected throughout the structure. Conventional sensing methods such as the measurement of dynamic strain and acceleration were included in the experiment. Since columns are critical elements needed to prevent structural collapse, knowledge of their integrity and damage conditions is essential for safety after exposure to blast loads. In this research, a concrete column with embedded SAs was chosen as the specimen, and a series of explosive tests were conducted on the column. Experimental results reveal that surface damages, though appear severe, cause minor changes in the damage index, and through cracks result in significant increase of the damage index, demonstrating the effectiveness of the active sensing, enabled by embedded SAs, in damage monitoring of the column under blast loads, and thus providing a reliable indication of structural integrity in the event of blast loads. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

29 pages, 6885 KiB  
Review
Bond-Slip Monitoring of Concrete Structures Using Smart Sensors—A Review
by Linsheng Huo, Hao Cheng, Qingzhao Kong and Xuemin Chen
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1231; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051231 - 11 Mar 2019
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 7090
Abstract
Concrete structures with various reinforcements, such as steel bars, composite material tendons, and recently steel plates, are commonly used in civil infrastructures. When an external force overcomes the strength of the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete, bond-slip will occur, resulting in [...] Read more.
Concrete structures with various reinforcements, such as steel bars, composite material tendons, and recently steel plates, are commonly used in civil infrastructures. When an external force overcomes the strength of the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete, bond-slip will occur, resulting in a relative displacement between the reinforcing materials and the concrete. Monitoring bond health plays an important role in guaranteeing structural safety. Recently, researchers have recognized the importance of bond-slip monitoring and performed many related investigations. In this paper, a state-of-the-art review on various smart sensors based on piezoelectric effect and fiber optic technology, as well as corresponding techniques for bond-slip monitoring is presented. Since piezoelectric sensors and fiber-optic sensors are widely used in bond-slip monitoring, their principles and relevant monitoring methods are also introduced in this paper. Particularly, the piezoelectric-based bond-slip monitoring methods including the active sensing method, the electro-mechanical impedance (EMI) method and the passive sensing using acoustic emission (AE) method, and the fiber-optic-based bond-slip detecting approaches including the fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and the distributed fiber optic sensing are highlighted. This paper provides guidance for practical applications and future development of bond-slip monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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23 pages, 3658 KiB  
Review
Review of Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Fire Engineering
by Yi Bao, Ying Huang, Matthew S. Hoehler and Genda Chen
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040877 - 20 Feb 2019
Cited by 79 | Viewed by 8626
Abstract
Reliable and accurate measurements of temperature and strain in structures subjected to fire can be difficult to obtain using traditional sensing technologies based on electrical signals. Fiber optic sensors, which are based on light signals, solve many of the problems of monitoring structures [...] Read more.
Reliable and accurate measurements of temperature and strain in structures subjected to fire can be difficult to obtain using traditional sensing technologies based on electrical signals. Fiber optic sensors, which are based on light signals, solve many of the problems of monitoring structures in high temperature environments; however, they present their own challenges. This paper, which is intended for structural engineers new to fiber optic sensors, reviews various fiber optic sensors that have been used to make measurements in structure fires, including the sensing principles, fabrication, key characteristics, and recently-reported applications. Three categories of fiber optic sensors are reviewed: Grating-based sensors, interferometer sensors, and distributed sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

15 pages, 2777 KiB  
Case Report
Highly Sensitive and Durable Structured Fibre Sensors for Low-Pressure Measurement in Smart Skin
by Bao Yang, Su Liu, Xi Wang, Rong Yin, Ying Xiong and Xiaoming Tao
Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081811 - 16 Apr 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4018
Abstract
Precise measurements of low pressure are highly necessary for many applications. This study developed novel structured fibre sensors embedded in silicone, forming smart skin with high sensitivity, high durability, and good immunity to crosstalk for precise measurement of pressure below 10 kPa. The [...] Read more.
Precise measurements of low pressure are highly necessary for many applications. This study developed novel structured fibre sensors embedded in silicone, forming smart skin with high sensitivity, high durability, and good immunity to crosstalk for precise measurement of pressure below 10 kPa. The transduction principle is that an applied pressure leads to bending and stretching of silicone and optical fibre over a purposely made groove and induces the axial strain in the gratings. The fabricated sensor showed high pressure sensitivity up to 26.8 pm/kPa and experienced over 1,000,000 cycles compression without obvious variation. A theoretical model of the sensor was presented and verified to have excellent agreement with experimental results. The prototype of smart leg mannequin and wrist pulse measurements indicated that such optical sensors can precisely measure low-pressure and can easily be integrated for smart skins for mapping low pressure on three-dimensional surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensors and Smart Structures)
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