Journal Description
Vehicles
Vehicles
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on transportation science and engineering published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), and other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Automotive Engineering)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 22.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Impact Factor:
2.2 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.2 (2022)
Latest Articles
Random Forest-Based Grouping for Accurate SOH Estimation in Second-Life Batteries
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 799-813; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020038 (registering DOI) - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Retired batteries pose a significant current and future challenge for electric mobility due to their high cost and the need for a state of health (SOH) above 80% to supply energy efficiently. Recycling and alternative applications are the primary options for these batteries,
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Retired batteries pose a significant current and future challenge for electric mobility due to their high cost and the need for a state of health (SOH) above 80% to supply energy efficiently. Recycling and alternative applications are the primary options for these batteries, with recycling still undergoing research as regards more efficient and cost-effective techniques. While advancements have been made, researchers are actively seeking improved methods. Repurposing retired batteries for lower-performance applications like stationary systems or low-speed vehicles is recommended. Second-life batteries (SLB) can be directly reused or reconstructed, with the latter involving the disassembly, measurement, and separation of cells based on their characteristics. The traditional measurement process, involving full charge and discharge cycles, is time-consuming. To address this, a Machine Learning (ML)-based SOH estimator is introduced in this work, offering the instant measurement and estimation of battery health without complete discharge. The results indicate that the model can accurately identify SOH within a nominal capacity range of 1400–2300 mAh, with a resolution near 45.70 mAh, in under five minutes of discharging. This innovative technique could be instrumental in selecting and assembling SLB packs.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management of Hybrid Electric Vehicles)
Open AccessArticle
Sim-to-Real Application of Reinforcement Learning Agents for Autonomous, Real Vehicle Drifting
by
Szilárd Hunor Tóth, Zsolt János Viharos, Ádám Bárdos and Zsolt Szalay
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 781-798; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020037 (registering DOI) - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Enhancing the safety of passengers by venturing beyond the limits of a human driver is one of the main ideas behind autonomous vehicles. While drifting is mostly witnessed in motorsports as an advanced driving technique, it could provide many possibilities for improving traffic
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Enhancing the safety of passengers by venturing beyond the limits of a human driver is one of the main ideas behind autonomous vehicles. While drifting is mostly witnessed in motorsports as an advanced driving technique, it could provide many possibilities for improving traffic safety by avoiding accidents in extreme traffic situations. The purpose of the research presented in this article is to provide a machine learning-based solution to autonomous drifting as a proof of concept for vehicle control at the limits of handling. To achieve this, reinforcement learning (RL) agents were trained for the task in a MATLAB/Simulink-based simulation environment, using the state-of-the-art Soft Actor–Critic (SAC) algorithm. The trained agents were tested in reality at the ZalaZONE proving ground on a series production sports car with zero-shot transfer. Based on the test results, the simulation environment was improved through domain randomization, until the agent could perform the task both in simulation and in reality on a real test car.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Vehicle Dynamics and Control)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Mixed Learning- and Model-Based Mass Estimation of Heavy Vehicles
by
Abdurrahman İşbitirici, Laura Giarré and Paolo Falcone
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 765-780; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020036 (registering DOI) - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
This research utilized long short-term memory (LSTM) to oversee an RLS-based mass estimator based on longitudinal vehicle dynamics for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) instead of using the predefined rules. A multilayer LSTM network that analyzed parameters such as vehicle speed, longitudinal acceleration, engine torque,
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This research utilized long short-term memory (LSTM) to oversee an RLS-based mass estimator based on longitudinal vehicle dynamics for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) instead of using the predefined rules. A multilayer LSTM network that analyzed parameters such as vehicle speed, longitudinal acceleration, engine torque, engine speed, and estimated mass from the RLS mass estimator was employed as the supervision method. The supervisory LSTM network was trained offline to recognize when the vehicle was operated so that the RLS estimator gave an estimate with the desired accuracy and the network was used as a reliability flag. High-fidelity simulation software was employed to collect data used to train and test the network. A threshold on the error percentage of the RLS mass estimator was used by the network to check the reliability of the algorithm. The preliminary findings indicate that the reliability of the RLS mass estimator could be predicted by using the LSTM network.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)
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Open AccessArticle
Using Probe Counts to Provide High-Resolution Detector Data for a Microscopic Traffic Simulation
by
Tobias Veihelmann, Victor Shatov, Maximilian Lübke and Norman Franchi
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 747-764; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020035 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
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Microscopic traffic simulations have become increasingly important for research targeting connected vehicles. They are especially appreciated for enabling investigations targeting large areas, which would be practically impossible or too expensive in the real world. However, such large-scale simulation scenarios often lack validation with
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Microscopic traffic simulations have become increasingly important for research targeting connected vehicles. They are especially appreciated for enabling investigations targeting large areas, which would be practically impossible or too expensive in the real world. However, such large-scale simulation scenarios often lack validation with real-world measurements since these data are often not available. To overcome this issue, this work integrates probe counts from floating car data as reference counts to model a large-scale microscopic traffic scenario with high-resolution detector data. To integrate the frequent probe counts, a road network matching is required. Thus, a novel road network matching method based on a decision tree classifier is proposed. The classifier automatically adjusts its cosine similarity and Hausdorff distance-based similarity metrics to match the network’s requirements. The approach performs well with an F1-score of 95.6%. However, post-processing steps are required to produce a sufficiently consistent detector dataset for the subsequent traffic simulation. The finally modeled traffic shows a good agreement of 95.1%. with upscaled probe counts and no unrealistic traffic jams, teleports, or collisions in the simulation. We conclude that probe counts can lead to consistent traffic simulations and, especially with increasing and consistent penetration rates in the future, help to accurately model large-scale microscopic traffic simulations.
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Open AccessArticle
Meta-Feature-Based Traffic Accident Risk Prediction: A Novel Approach to Forecasting Severity and Incidence
by
Wei Sun, Lili Nurliynana Abdullah, Puteri Suhaiza Sulaiman and Fatimah Khalid
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 728-746; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020034 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study aims to improve the accuracy of predicting the severity of traffic accidents by developing an innovative traffic accident risk prediction model—StackTrafficRiskPrediction. The model combines multidimensional data analysis including environmental factors, human factors, roadway characteristics, and accident-related meta-features. In the model comparison,
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This study aims to improve the accuracy of predicting the severity of traffic accidents by developing an innovative traffic accident risk prediction model—StackTrafficRiskPrediction. The model combines multidimensional data analysis including environmental factors, human factors, roadway characteristics, and accident-related meta-features. In the model comparison, the StackTrafficRiskPrediction model achieves an accuracy of 0.9613, 0.9069, and 0.7508 in predicting fatal, serious, and minor accidents, respectively, which significantly outperforms the traditional logistic regression model. In the experimental part, we analyzed the severity of traffic accidents under different age groups of drivers, driving experience, road conditions, light and weather conditions. The results showed that drivers between 31 and 50 years of age with 2 to 5 years of driving experience were more likely to be involved in serious crashes. In addition, it was found that drivers tend to adopt a more cautious driving style in poor road and weather conditions, which increases the margin of safety. In terms of model evaluation, the StackTrafficRiskPrediction model performs best in terms of accuracy, recall, and ROC–AUC values, but performs poorly in predicting small-sample categories. Our study also revealed limitations of the current methodology, such as the sample imbalance problem and the limitations of environmental and human factors in the study. Future research can overcome these limitations by collecting more diverse data, exploring a wider range of influencing factors, and applying more advanced data analysis techniques.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Transportation Safety and Operations: Practical Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
Robust Calibration Technique for Precise Transformation of Low-Resolution 2D LiDAR Points to Camera Image Pixels in Intelligent Autonomous Driving Systems
by
Ravichandran Rajesh and Pudureddiyur Venkataraman Manivannan
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 711-727; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020033 - 19 Apr 2024
Abstract
In the context of autonomous driving, the fusion of LiDAR and camera sensors is essential for robust obstacle detection and distance estimation. However, accurately estimating the transformation matrix between cost-effective low-resolution LiDAR and cameras presents challenges due to the generation of uncertain points
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In the context of autonomous driving, the fusion of LiDAR and camera sensors is essential for robust obstacle detection and distance estimation. However, accurately estimating the transformation matrix between cost-effective low-resolution LiDAR and cameras presents challenges due to the generation of uncertain points by low-resolution LiDAR. In the present work, a new calibration technique is developed to accurately transform low-resolution 2D LiDAR points into camera pixels by utilizing both static and dynamic calibration patterns. Initially, the key corresponding points are identified at the intersection of 2D LiDAR points and calibration patterns. Subsequently, interpolation is applied to generate additional corresponding points for estimating the homography matrix. The homography matrix is then optimized using the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm to minimize the rotation error, followed by a Procrustes analysis to minimize the translation error. The accuracy of the developed calibration technique is validated through various experiments (varying distances and orientations). The experimental findings demonstrate that the developed calibration technique significantly reduces the mean reprojection error by 0.45 pixels, rotation error by 65.08%, and distance error by 71.93% compared to the standard homography technique. Thus, the developed calibration technique promises the accurate transformation of low-resolution LiDAR points into camera pixels, thereby contributing to improved obstacle perception in intelligent autonomous driving systems.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Information Sensing Technology for Intelligent/Driverless Vehicle, 2nd Volume)
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Open AccessArticle
Connected Automated and Human-Driven Vehicle Mixed Traffic in Urban Freeway Interchanges: Safety Analysis and Design Assumptions
by
Anna Granà, Salvatore Curto, Andrea Petralia and Tullio Giuffrè
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 693-710; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020032 - 11 Apr 2024
Abstract
The introduction of connected automated vehicles (CAVs) on freeways raises significant challenges, particularly in interactions with human-driven vehicles, impacting traffic flow and safety. This study employs traffic microsimulation and surrogate safety assessment measures software to delve into CAV–human driver interactions, estimating potential conflicts.
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The introduction of connected automated vehicles (CAVs) on freeways raises significant challenges, particularly in interactions with human-driven vehicles, impacting traffic flow and safety. This study employs traffic microsimulation and surrogate safety assessment measures software to delve into CAV–human driver interactions, estimating potential conflicts. While previous research acknowledges that human drivers adjust their behavior when sharing the road with CAVs, the underlying reasons and the extent of associated risks are not fully understood yet. The study focuses on how CAV presence can diminish conflicts, employing surrogate safety measures and real-world mixed traffic data, and assesses the safety and performance of freeway interchange configurations in Italy and the US across diverse urban contexts. This research proposes tools for optimizing urban layouts to minimize conflicts in mixed traffic environments. Results reveal that adding auxiliary lanes enhances safety, particularly for CAVs and rear-end collisions. Along interchange ramps, an exclusive CAV stream performs similarly to human-driven ones in terms of longitudinal conflicts, but mixed traffic flows, consisting of both CAVs and human-driven vehicles, may result in more conflicts. Notably, when CAVs follow human-driven vehicles in near-identical conditions, more conflicts arise, emphasizing the complexity of CAV integration and the need for careful safety measures and roadway design considerations.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Transportation Safety and Operations: Practical Perspectives)
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Enhancing Urban Intersection Efficiency: Utilizing Visible Light Communication and Learning-Driven Control for Improved Traffic Signal Performance
by
Manuela Vieira, Manuel Augusto Vieira, Gonçalo Galvão, Paula Louro, Mário Véstias and Pedro Vieira
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 666-692; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020031 - 04 Apr 2024
Abstract
This paper introduces an approach to enhance the efficiency of urban intersections by integrating Visible Light Communication (VLC) into a multi-intersection traffic control system. The main objectives include the reduction in waiting times for vehicles and pedestrians, the improvement of overall traffic safety,
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This paper introduces an approach to enhance the efficiency of urban intersections by integrating Visible Light Communication (VLC) into a multi-intersection traffic control system. The main objectives include the reduction in waiting times for vehicles and pedestrians, the improvement of overall traffic safety, and the accommodation of diverse traffic movements during multiple signal phases. The proposed system utilizes VLC to facilitate communication among interconnected vehicles and infrastructure. This is achieved by utilizing streetlights, headlamps, and traffic signals for transmitting information. By integrating VLC localization services with learning-driven traffic signal control, the multi-intersection traffic management system is established. A reinforcement learning scheme, based on VLC queuing/request/response behaviors, is utilized to schedule traffic signals effectively. Agents placed at each intersection control traffic lights by incorporating information from VLC-ready cars, including their positions, destinations, and intended routes. The agents devise optimal strategies to improve traffic flow and engage in communication to optimize the collective traffic performance. An assessment of the multi-intersection scenario through the SUMO urban mobility simulator reveals considerable benefits. The system successfully reduces both waiting and travel times. The reinforcement learning approach effectively schedules traffic signals, and the results highlight the decentralized and scalable nature of the proposed method, especially in multi-intersection scenarios. The discussion emphasizes the possibility of applying reinforcement learning in everyday traffic scenarios, showcasing the potential for the dynamic identification of control actions and improved traffic management.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Transportation Safety and Operations: Practical Perspectives)
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Open AccessArticle
A New Strategy for Railway Bogie Frame Designing Combining Structural–Topological Optimization and Sensitivity Analysis
by
Alessio Cascino, Enrico Meli and Andrea Rindi
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 651-665; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020030 - 31 Mar 2024
Abstract
Rolling stock manufacturers are finding innovative structural solutions to improve the quality and reliability of railway vehicles components. Structural optimization processes represent an effective strategy for reducing manufacturing costs, resulting in geometries easier to design and produce. In this framework, the present paper
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Rolling stock manufacturers are finding innovative structural solutions to improve the quality and reliability of railway vehicles components. Structural optimization processes represent an effective strategy for reducing manufacturing costs, resulting in geometries easier to design and produce. In this framework, the present paper proposes a new methodology to design a railway metro bogie frame, combining structural–topological optimization methods and sensitivity analysis. In addition, manufacturing constraints were included to make the component design suitable for production through sand-casting. A robust sensitivity analysis has highlighted the most critical load conditions acting on the bogie frame. Its effectiveness was verified by carrying out two different structural optimizations based on different loadings. Two equivalent designs were obtained. Computational times were positively reduced by about 57%. The maximum value of stress was reduced about 23%. This new methodology has shown encouraging results to streamline the design process of this complex mechanical system, allowing researchers to also include manufacturing requirements.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Railway Vehicles and Infrastructure)
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Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of the Energy Equivalent Speed of Car Damage Using a Finite Element Model
by
Paweł Droździel, Tomas Pasaulis, Robertas Pečeliūnas and Saugirdas Pukalskas
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 632-650; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020029 - 30 Mar 2024
Abstract
To determine the speed of a vehicle in a collision with body deformation, the kinetic energy input of the vehicle to cause body damage must be estimated. This paper analyzes the methods for estimating the energy equivalent of vehicle damage. A finite element
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To determine the speed of a vehicle in a collision with body deformation, the kinetic energy input of the vehicle to cause body damage must be estimated. This paper analyzes the methods for estimating the energy equivalent of vehicle damage. A finite element model of a Toyota Yaris developed by the National Crash Analysis Center (NCAC) for use in the LS DYNA R.11.0.0 software environment is used for the simulation. The simulations include tests of the vehicle hitting a non-deformable wall, an object simulating a pole or a tree. The residual deformations obtained are used to determine the energy equivalent speed (EES) values using the “Crash 3—EBS Calculation 12.0” software and a visual comparison with the EES catalog database, where the EES parameter value is recalculated to take into account the difference in the mass of the vehicles.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)
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Open AccessArticle
An Estimation of the Energy Savings of a Mainline Diesel Locomotive Equipped with an Energy Storage Device
by
Ievgen Riabov, Sergey Goolak and Larysa Neduzha
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 611-631; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020028 - 29 Mar 2024
Abstract
The method of improving a two-section mainline diesel locomotive by using energy storage in the traction system is considered. A mathematical model was developed to study the movement of a diesel locomotive based on the recommendations and provisions of the theory of locomotive
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The method of improving a two-section mainline diesel locomotive by using energy storage in the traction system is considered. A mathematical model was developed to study the movement of a diesel locomotive based on the recommendations and provisions of the theory of locomotive traction. For this purpose, the movement of a diesel locomotive as part of a train along a given section of a track was studied. It was determined that the use of an energy storage device on a diesel locomotive will allow up to 64% of the energy spent on train traction to accumulate. The use of energy storage in the accumulator during electrodynamic braking ensured a reduction in fuel consumption by about 50%, regardless of the options for equipping the traction system of the diesel locomotive with an energy accumulator. It is established that regardless of the options for equipping the traction system of the diesel locomotive with an energy storage device, the indicators characterizing the degree of use of the diesel engine do not change. These research results can be used in works devoted to the improvement of the control system of energy exchange between the accumulator and traction engines of diesel locomotives.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Railway Vehicles and Infrastructure)
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Open AccessArticle
Computing Safe Stop Trajectories for Autonomous Driving Utilizing Clustering and Parametric Optimization
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Johannes Langhorst, Kai Wah Chan, Christian Meerpohl and Christof Büskens
Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 590-610; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020027 - 24 Mar 2024
Abstract
In the realm of autonomous driving, ensuring a secure halt is imperative across diverse scenarios, ranging from routine stops at traffic lights to critical situations involving detected system boundaries of crucial modules. This article presents a novel methodology for swiftly calculating safe stop
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In the realm of autonomous driving, ensuring a secure halt is imperative across diverse scenarios, ranging from routine stops at traffic lights to critical situations involving detected system boundaries of crucial modules. This article presents a novel methodology for swiftly calculating safe stop trajectories. We utilize a clustering method to categorize lane shapes to assign encountered traffic situations at runtime to a set of precomputed resources. Among these resources, there are precalculated halt trajectories along representative lane centers that serve as parametrizations of the optimal control problem. At runtime, the current road settings are identified, and the respective precomputed trajectory is selected and then adjusted to fit the present situation. Here, the perceived lane center is considered a change in the parameters of the optimal control problem. Thus, techniques based on parametric sensitivity analysis can be employed, such as the low-cost feasibility correction. This approach covers a substantial number of lane shapes and exhibits a similar solution quality as a re-optimization to generate a trajectory while demanding only a fraction of the computation time.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Control of Autonomous Driving Systems)
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Open AccessArticle
Analysis and Preliminary Design of Variable Flux Reluctance Machines: A Perspective from Working Field Harmonics
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Xiangpei Gu, Nicola Bianchi and Zhuoran Zhang
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 571-589; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010026 - 21 Mar 2024
Abstract
Variable flux reluctance machines (VFRMs) are increasingly attracting research interest due to their magnetless and robust brushless structure. Under the modulation effect of the airgap permeance, the VFRM operates with a series of field harmonics, distinguishing it from conventional AC synchronous machines. This
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Variable flux reluctance machines (VFRMs) are increasingly attracting research interest due to their magnetless and robust brushless structure. Under the modulation effect of the airgap permeance, the VFRM operates with a series of field harmonics, distinguishing it from conventional AC synchronous machines. This paper deals with the analysis and preliminary design of the VFRM from the perspective of multiple working airgap field harmonics. Firstly, the spatial and temporal order of the working field harmonics are defined. The systematic winding theory, including the unified star of slots and winding factor calculation method, is established to consider all these working harmonics. Then, an average torque model is built and simplified. The key role of 1st-order rotor permeance, 1st- and 3rd-order polarized stator permeance is deduced. The relationship between key parameters and average torque is computed, providing a guideline for the preliminary design of the VFRM.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Energy and Propulsion Technology for Electric and Intelligent Transportation)
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Open AccessArticle
An Analysis of the Correct Frequency of the Service Inspections of German Passenger Cars—A Case Study on Kazakhstan and Poland
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Saltanat Nurkusheva, Michał Bembenek, Maciej Berdychowski, Bożena Gajdzik and Radosław Wolniak
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 553-570; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010025 - 19 Mar 2024
Abstract
This article presents a case study on estimating the real service inspection intervals for German-brand passenger cars in Kazakhstan and Poland. This study aimed to identify disparities between the official recommendations of manufacturers for car maintenance and the real data collected in these
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This article presents a case study on estimating the real service inspection intervals for German-brand passenger cars in Kazakhstan and Poland. This study aimed to identify disparities between the official recommendations of manufacturers for car maintenance and the real data collected in these two countries. The following passenger cars were examined: Audi A6, Q5, and Q8; Porsche Cayenne and Cayenne coupe; and Volkswagen Passat, Polo, Teramont, Tiguan, Touareg, Arteon, Golf, T-Cross, Tiguan all space, Touran, T-Roc, and Up. To assess the difference between real and recommended values, the manufacturer criteria of a recommended mileage of 15,000 and 30,000 km or a time frame of 365 and 730 days to the first service inspection were applied. The data analysis showed that in Kazakhstan, 31.4% of cars did not meet the warranty conditions, while in Poland, it was 21.0%. The dominant criterion that was not met was the time criterion. The assessment of these factors emphasizes the importance of customizing vehicle maintenance schedules to the specific conditions and driving behaviors prevalent in each country. The practical contribution of the article lies in uncovering the discrepancies between official manufacturer recommendations for car maintenance and the actual data collected in Kazakhstan and Poland. By identifying specific models, Volkswagen Touareg and Tiguan in Kazakhstan and Volkswagen Up in Poland, for which the maintenance intervals deviated significantly from those recommended, this study offers valuable insights for optimizing service schedules and improving the efficiency of maintenance practices in these countries. From a scientific perspective, this article contributes by providing empirical evidence of real-world maintenance behaviors for German-brand passenger cars.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reliability Analysis and Evaluation of Automotive Systems)
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Open AccessArticle
A Curb-Detection Network with a Tri-Plane BEV Encoder Module for Autonomous Delivery Vehicles
by
Lu Zhang, Jinzhu Wang, Xichan Zhu and Zhixiong Ma
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 539-552; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010024 - 16 Mar 2024
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Curb detection tasks play a crucial role in the perception of the autonomous driving environment for logistics vehicles. With the popularity of multi-modal sensors under the BEV (Bird’s Eye View) paradigm, curb detection tasks are increasingly being integrated into multi-task perception networks, achieving
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Curb detection tasks play a crucial role in the perception of the autonomous driving environment for logistics vehicles. With the popularity of multi-modal sensors under the BEV (Bird’s Eye View) paradigm, curb detection tasks are increasingly being integrated into multi-task perception networks, achieving robust detection results. This paper modifies and integrates the tri-plane spatial feature representation method of the EG3D network from the field of 3D reconstruction into a BEV-based multi-modal sensor detection network, including LiDAR, pinhole cameras, and fisheye cameras. The system collects a total of 24,350 frames of data under real road conditions for experimentation, proving the effectiveness of the proposed method.
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Open AccessCommunication
Evaluation of Electric Vehicle Performance Characteristics for Adaptive Supervisory Self-Learning-Based SR Motor Energy Management Controller under Real-Time Driving Conditions
by
Pemmareddy Saiteja, Bragadeshwaran Ashok and Dharmik Upadhyay
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 509-538; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010023 - 08 Mar 2024
Abstract
The performance of an electric vehicle (EV) notably depends on an energy management controller. This study developed several energy management controllers (EMCs) to optimize the efficiency of EVs in real-time driving conditions. Also, this study employed an innovative methodology to create EMCs, efficiency
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The performance of an electric vehicle (EV) notably depends on an energy management controller. This study developed several energy management controllers (EMCs) to optimize the efficiency of EVs in real-time driving conditions. Also, this study employed an innovative methodology to create EMCs, efficiency maps, and real-time driving cycles under actual driving conditions. The various EMCs such as PID, intelligent, hybrid, and supervisory controllers are designed using MATLAB/Simulink and examined under real-time conditions. In this instance, a mathematical model of an EV with a switched reluctance (SR) motor is developed to optimize energy consumption using different energy management controllers. Further, an inventive experimental approach is employed to generate efficiency maps for the SR motor and above-mentioned controllers. Then, the generated efficiency maps are integrated into a model-in-loop (MIL)-based EV test platform to analyze the performance under real-time conditions. Additionally, to verify EV model, a real-time driving cycle (DC) has been developed, encompassing various road conditions such as highway, urban, and rural. Subsequently, the developed models are included into an MIL-based EV test platform to optimize the performance of the electric motor and battery consumption in real-time conditions. The results indicate that the proposed supervisory controller (59.1%) has a lower EOT SOC drop compared to the PID (3.6%), intelligent (21.5%), and hybrid (44.9%) controllers. Also, the suggested controller achieves minimal energy consumption (44.67 Wh/km) and enhances energy recovery (−58.28 Wh) under different real-time conditions. Therefore, it will enhance the driving range and battery discharge characteristics of EVs across various real-time driving conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Storage Systems for Electric Mobility)
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Open AccessArticle
A fsQCA-Based Framework for Cybersecurity of Connected and Automated Vehicles: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals
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Koppiahraj Karuppiah, Bathrinath Sankaranarayanan, Syed Mithun Ali and Ramesh Priyanka
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 484-508; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010022 - 28 Feb 2024
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Connected and automated vehicles (CAV) are increasingly recognized as a critical component of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), contributing to advances in transportation safety and mobility. However, the implementation of CAV in a real-world environment comes with various threats, and cybersecurity is among the
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Connected and automated vehicles (CAV) are increasingly recognized as a critical component of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), contributing to advances in transportation safety and mobility. However, the implementation of CAV in a real-world environment comes with various threats, and cybersecurity is among the most vulnerable. As the technology becomes more advanced and complex, it is essential to develop a comprehensive cybersecurity framework that can address these concerns. This research proposes a novel framework based on complexity theory and employs the fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) technique to identify combinations of security attacks that lead to achieving cybersecurity in CAV. Compared to structural equation modelling (SEM), the fsQCA method offers the advantage of demonstrating all possible ways to achieve the outcome. The study’s findings suggest that in-vehicle networks and data storage security are the most crucial factors in ensuring the cybersecurity of CAV. The results can be useful for automotive designers in reducing the potential for attacks while developing secure networks.
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Open AccessArticle
Coil Parameter Analysis for Inductively Coupled Wireless Charging for Electric Vehicles
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Viswanath Chakibanda and Venkata Lakshmi Narayana Komanapalli
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 468-483; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010021 - 28 Feb 2024
Abstract
Wireless charging (WC) has gained popularity for the charging of electric vehicles in recent years of research, particularly dynamic wireless charging systems (DWCSs). Among the different topologies of DWCSs, this paper focuses on an inductively coupled wireless charging system (ICWCS). In this ICWCS,
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Wireless charging (WC) has gained popularity for the charging of electric vehicles in recent years of research, particularly dynamic wireless charging systems (DWCSs). Among the different topologies of DWCSs, this paper focuses on an inductively coupled wireless charging system (ICWCS). In this ICWCS, double-D (DD) coils create horizontal and vertical flux components between different pad configurations, which show optimal features in contrast to circular pad coils. In this work, the three-dimensional (3D) finite element technique (FEM) is used to establish the proposed design to observe the coupling coefficient, while the system design’s performance is evaluated using a circuit simulator. In the simulation, the proposed DD coil configuration is used for both the transmitter and receiver sides. It provides the maximum coupling coefficient and efficiency at perfect alignment when using an in-between air gap of 166 mm and six I-type ferrite bars on the transmitter side and five I-type ferrite bars on the receiver side. The coupling coefficient and system parameters, such as power and efficiency, are considered for different misalignments in the proposed configuration. The results of this work satisfy the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J2954 Class 3 criteria. The best results obtained are on account of optimizing the ferrite core, which is achieved by varying its length and width. While varying the ferrite core’s dimensions, 0.2451, as the optimal k value, is obtained at the effective width and length of 57.5 mm and 400 mm, respectively. The simulation results of the Ansys Maxwell 3D software prove the feasibility of the proposed structure.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging)
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Open AccessReview
Enhancing Security in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication: A Comprehensive Review of Protocols and Techniques
by
Muhana Magboul Ali Muslam
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 450-467; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010020 - 27 Feb 2024
Abstract
Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication has played a pivotal role in modern intelligent transportation systems, enabling seamless information exchange among vehicles to enhance road safety, traffic efficiency, and overall driving experience. However, the secure transmission of sensitive data between vehicles remains a critical concern due
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Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication has played a pivotal role in modern intelligent transportation systems, enabling seamless information exchange among vehicles to enhance road safety, traffic efficiency, and overall driving experience. However, the secure transmission of sensitive data between vehicles remains a critical concern due to potential security threats and vulnerabilities. This research focused on investigating the security protocols that have been employed in vehicle-to-vehicle communication systems. A comprehensive review and analysis of relevant literature and research papers was conducted to gather information on existing V2V communication security protocols and techniques. The analysis encompassed key areas, including authentication mechanisms, encryption algorithms, key management protocols, and intrusion detection systems specifically applicable to V2V communication networks. Within the context of real-world V2V environments, this study delved into the challenges and limitations associated with implementing these protocols. The research aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the current V2V communication security protocols. Furthermore, based on the findings, this paper proposes improvements and recommendations to enhance the security measures of the V2V communication protocol. Ultimately, this research contributes to the development of more secure and reliable V2V communication systems, propelling the advancement of intelligent transportation technology.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)
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Open AccessReview
An Overview of the Efficiency of Roundabouts: Design Aspects and Contribution toward Safer Vehicle Movement
by
Konstantinos Gkyrtis and Alexandros Kokkalis
Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 433-449; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010019 - 25 Feb 2024
Abstract
Transforming intersections into roundabouts has shown that a sufficient degree of road safety and traffic capacity can be achieved. Because of the lower speeds at the area of a roundabout, drivers tend to become more easily adaptive to any kind of conflict with
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Transforming intersections into roundabouts has shown that a sufficient degree of road safety and traffic capacity can be achieved. Because of the lower speeds at the area of a roundabout, drivers tend to become more easily adaptive to any kind of conflict with the surrounding environment. Despite the contribution to safety, the design elements of roundabouts are not uniformly fixed on a worldwide scale because of different traffic volumes, vehicle dimensions, drivers’ attitude, etc. The present study provides a brief overview of the contribution of roundabouts to road safety and the interactions between safety and the design elements of roundabouts. In addition, discussion points about current challenges and prospects are elaborated, including findings from the environmental assessment of roundabouts; their use and performance on the era of autonomous vehicles that will dominate in the near future; as well as the role and importance of simulation studies towards the improvement of the design and operation of roundabouts in favor of safer vehicle movement. The criticality of roundabouts, in terms of their geometric design as well as the provided road safety, lies upon the fact that roundabouts are currently used for the conventional vehicle fleet, which will be gradually replaced by new vehicle technologies. Such an action will directly impact the criteria for road network design and/or redesign, thereby continuously fostering new research initiatives.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Transportation Safety and Operations: Practical Perspectives)
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