Sensors

12 pages, 729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Chronoamperometric Screen Printed Carbon Biosensor Based on Alkaline Phosphatase Inhibition for W(VI) Determination in Water, Using 2-Phospho-l-Ascorbic Acid Trisodium Salt as a Substrate

by Ana Lorena Alvarado-Gámez^1,*, María Asunción Alonso-Lomillo², Olga Domínguez-Renedo² and María Julia Arcos-Martínez²

¹ School of Chemistry & CELEQ, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, 11500-2060 San José, Costa Rica

² Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Plaza Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001 Burgos, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2232-2243; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202232 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7805

Abstract

This paper presents a chronoamperometric method to determine tungsten in water using screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with gold nanoparticles and cross linked alkaline phosphatase immobilized in the working electrode. Enzymatic activity over 2-phospho-l-ascorbic acid trisodium salt, used as substrate, was affected by tungsten [...] Read more.

This paper presents a chronoamperometric method to determine tungsten in water using screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with gold nanoparticles and cross linked alkaline phosphatase immobilized in the working electrode. Enzymatic activity over 2-phospho-l-ascorbic acid trisodium salt, used as substrate, was affected by tungsten ions, which resulted in a decrease of chronoamperometric current, when a potential of 200 mV was applied on 10 mM of substrate in a Tris HCl buffer pH 8.00 and 0.36 M of KCl. Calibration curves for the electrochemical method validation, give a reproducibility of 5.2% (n = 3), a repeatability of 9.4% (n = 3) and a detection limit of 0.29 ± 0.01 µM. Enriched tap water, purified laboratory water and bottled drinking water, with a certified tungsten reference solution traceable to NIST, gave a recovery of 97.1%, 99.1% and 99.1% respectively (n = 4 in each case) and a dynamic range from 0.6 to 30 µM. This study was performed by means of a Lineweaver–Burk plot, showing a mixed kinetic inhibition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Amperometric Biosensors)

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21 pages, 826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye/Head Tracking Technology to Improve HCI with iPad Applications

by Asier Lopez-Basterretxea^†, Amaia Mendez-Zorrilla^*,† and Begoña Garcia-Zapirain^†

¹ DeustoTech-Life Research Unit. DeustoTech Institute of Technology, University of Deusto, Avda. Universidades, 24. 48007 Bilbao, Spain

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2244-2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202244 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 12276

Abstract

In order to improve human computer interaction (HCI) for people with special needs, this paper presents an alternative form of interaction, which uses the iPad’s front camera and eye/head tracking technology. With this functional nature/capability operating in the background, the user can control [...] Read more.

In order to improve human computer interaction (HCI) for people with special needs, this paper presents an alternative form of interaction, which uses the iPad’s front camera and eye/head tracking technology. With this functional nature/capability operating in the background, the user can control already developed or new applications for the iPad by moving their eyes and/or head. There are many techniques, which are currently used to detect facial features, such as eyes or even the face itself. Open source bookstores exist for such purpose, such as OpenCV, which enable very reliable and accurate detection algorithms to be applied, such as Haar Cascade using very high-level programming. All processing is undertaken in real time, and it is therefore important to pay close attention to the use of limited resources (processing capacity) of devices, such as the iPad. The system was validated in tests involving 22 users of different ages and characteristics (people with dark and light-colored eyes and with/without glasses). These tests are performed to assess user/device interaction and to ascertain whether it works properly. The system obtained an accuracy of between 60% and 100% in the three test exercises taken into consideration. The results showed that the Haar Cascade had a significant effect by detecting faces in 100% of cases, unlike eyes and the pupil where interference (light and shade) evidenced less effectiveness. In addition to ascertaining the effectiveness of the system via these exercises, the demo application has also helped to show that user constraints need not affect the enjoyment and use of a particular type of technology. In short, the results obtained are encouraging and these systems may continue to be developed if extended and updated in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HCI In Smart Environments)

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18 pages, 22883 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Stage Method for Connecting Participatory Sensing and Noise Simulations

by Mingyuan Hu^1,2,*, Weitao Che^1,2,*, Qiuju Zhang^3,†, Qingli Luo^4,† and Hui Lin^1,2,†

¹ Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2nd Yuexing Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518057, China

² Institute of Space and Earth Information Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Fok Ying Tung Remote Sensing Building, CUHK, ShaTin, N.T., Hong Kong

³ Department of Geo-information Processing, Faculty of ITC, University of Twente, Hengelosestraat 99, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands

⁴ Center of Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2265-2282; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202265 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6458

Abstract

Most simulation-based noise maps are important for official noise assessment but lack local noise characteristics. The main reasons for this lack of information are that official noise simulations only provide information about expected noise levels, which is limited by the use of large-scale [...] Read more.

Most simulation-based noise maps are important for official noise assessment but lack local noise characteristics. The main reasons for this lack of information are that official noise simulations only provide information about expected noise levels, which is limited by the use of large-scale monitoring of noise sources, and are updated infrequently. With the emergence of smart cities and ubiquitous sensing, the possible improvements enabled by sensing technologies provide the possibility to resolve this problem. This study proposed an integrated methodology to propel participatory sensing from its current random and distributed sampling origins to professional noise simulation. The aims of this study were to effectively organize the participatory noise data, to dynamically refine the granularity of the noise features on road segments (e.g., different portions of a road segment), and then to provide a reasonable spatio-temporal data foundation to support noise simulations, which can be of help to researchers in understanding how participatory sensing can play a role in smart cities. This study first discusses the potential limitations of the current participatory sensing and simulation-based official noise maps. Next, we explain how participatory noise data can contribute to a simulation-based noise map by providing (1) spatial matching of the participatory noise data to the virtual partitions at a more microscopic level of road networks; (2) multi-temporal scale noise estimations at the spatial level of virtual partitions; and (3) dynamic aggregation of virtual partitions by comparing the noise values at the relevant temporal scale to form a dynamic segmentation of each road segment to support multiple spatio-temporal noise simulations. In this case study, we demonstrate how this method could play a significant role in a simulation-based noise map. Together, these results demonstrate the potential benefits of participatory noise data as dynamic input sources for noise simulations on multiple spatio-temporal scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Smart Cities)

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26 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Compact 3D Omnidirectional Range Sensor of High Resolution for Robust Reconstruction of Environments

by Roberto Marani^*, Vito Renò, Massimiliano Nitti, Tiziana D'Orazio and Ettore Stella

Institute of Intelligent Systems for Automation, Italian National Research Council, via Amendola 122/DO, 70126 Bari, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2283-2308; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202283 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7197

Abstract

In this paper, an accurate range sensor for the three-dimensional reconstruction of environments is designed and developed. Following the principles of laser profilometry, the device exploits a set of optical transmitters able to project a laser line on the environment. A high-resolution and [...] Read more.

In this paper, an accurate range sensor for the three-dimensional reconstruction of environments is designed and developed. Following the principles of laser profilometry, the device exploits a set of optical transmitters able to project a laser line on the environment. A high-resolution and high-frame-rate camera assisted by a telecentric lens collects the laser light reflected by a parabolic mirror, whose shape is designed ad hoc to achieve a maximum measurement error of 10 mm when the target is placed 3 m away from the laser source. Measurements are derived by means of an analytical model, whose parameters are estimated during a preliminary calibration phase. Geometrical parameters, analytical modeling and image processing steps are validated through several experiments, which indicate the capability of the proposed device to recover the shape of a target with high accuracy. Experimental measurements show Gaussian statistics, having standard deviation of 1.74 mm within the measurable range. Results prove that the presented range sensor is a good candidate for environmental inspections and measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy 2014)

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27 pages, 8954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study of a Millimeter Wave FMCW InSAR for UAS Indoor Navigation

by Antonio F. Scannapieco^*, Alfredo Renga

and Antonio Moccia

Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, Naples 80125, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2309-2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202309 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 9151

Abstract

Small autonomous unmanned aerial systems (UAS) could be used for indoor inspection in emergency missions, such as damage assessment or the search for survivors in dangerous environments, e.g., power plants, underground railways, mines and industrial warehouses. Two basic functions are required to carry [...] Read more.

Small autonomous unmanned aerial systems (UAS) could be used for indoor inspection in emergency missions, such as damage assessment or the search for survivors in dangerous environments, e.g., power plants, underground railways, mines and industrial warehouses. Two basic functions are required to carry out these tasks, that is autonomous GPS-denied navigation with obstacle detection and high-resolution 3Dmapping with moving target detection. State-of-the-art sensors for UAS are very sensitive to environmental conditions and often fail in the case of poor visibility caused by dust, fog, smoke, flames or other factors that are met as nominal mission scenarios when operating indoors. This paper is a preliminary study concerning an innovative radar sensor based on the interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) principle, which has the potential to satisfy stringent requirements set by indoor autonomous operation. An architectural solution based on a frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) scheme is proposed after a detailed analysis of existing compact and lightweight SAR. A preliminary system design is obtained, and the main imaging peculiarities of the novel sensor are discussed, demonstrating that high-resolution, high-quality observation of an assigned control volume can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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18 pages, 6893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations on the Impact of Material-Integrated Sensors with the Help of FEM-Based Modeling

by Gerrit Dumstorff^* and Walter Lang

Institute of Microsensors, -Actuators, and -Systems, Microsystems Center Bremen, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2336-2353; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202336 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5149

Abstract

We present investigations on the impact of material-integrated sensors with the help of finite element-based modeling. A sensor (inlay) integrated with a material (matrix) is always a foreign body in the material, which can lead to a “wound effect”, that is degradation of [...] Read more.

We present investigations on the impact of material-integrated sensors with the help of finite element-based modeling. A sensor (inlay) integrated with a material (matrix) is always a foreign body in the material, which can lead to a “wound effect”, that is degradation of the macroscopic behavior of a material. By analyzing the inlay’s impact on the material in terms of mechanical load, heat conduction, stress during integration and other impacts of integration, this wound effect is analyzed. For the mechanical load, we found out that the inlay has to be at least as stretchable and bendable as the matrix. If there is a high thermal load during integration, the coefficients of the thermal expansion of the inlay have to be matched to the matrix. In the case of a high thermal load during operation, the inlay has to be as thin as possible or its thermal conductivity has to be adapted to the thermal conductivity of the matrix. To have a general view of things, the results are dimensionless and independent of the geometry. In each section, the results are illustrated by examples. Based on all of the results, we present our idea for the fabrication of future material-integrated sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Throughput Oxidative Stress Biosensor Based on Escherichia coli roGFP2 Cells Immobilized in a k-Carrageenan Matrix

by Lia Ooi¹, Lee Yook Heng^1,2 and Izumi C. Mori^3,*

¹ Southeast Asia Disaster Prevention Research Initiative (SEADPRI-UKM), Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

² Faculty of Science and Technology, National University of Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

³ Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University, Kurashiki 710-0046, Japan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2354-2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202354 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6186

Abstract

Biosensors fabricated with whole-cell bacteria appear to be suitable for detecting bioavailability and toxicity effects of the chemical(s) of concern, but they are usually reported to have drawbacks like long response times (ranging from hours to days), narrow dynamic range and instability during [...] Read more.

Biosensors fabricated with whole-cell bacteria appear to be suitable for detecting bioavailability and toxicity effects of the chemical(s) of concern, but they are usually reported to have drawbacks like long response times (ranging from hours to days), narrow dynamic range and instability during long term storage. Our aim is to fabricate a sensitive whole-cell oxidative stress biosensor which has improved properties that address the mentioned weaknesses. In this paper, we report a novel high-throughput whole-cell biosensor fabricated by immobilizing roGFP2 expressing Escherichia coli cells in a k-carrageenan matrix, for the detection of oxidative stress challenged by metalloid compounds. The E. coli roGFP2 oxidative stress biosensor shows high sensitivity towards arsenite and selenite, with wide linear range and low detection limit (arsenite: 1.0 × 10⁻³–1.0 × 10¹ mg·L⁻¹, LOD: 2.0 × 10⁻⁴ mg·L⁻¹; selenite: 1.0 × 10⁻⁵–1.0 × 10² mg·L⁻¹, LOD: 5.8 × 10⁻⁶ mg·L⁻¹), short response times (0–9 min), high stability and reproducibility. This research is expected to provide a new direction in performing high-throughput environmental toxicity screening with living bacterial cells which is capable of measuring the bioavailability and toxicity of environmental stressors in a friction of a second. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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19 pages, 1946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyber Surveillance for Flood Disasters

by Shi-Wei Lo^1,2, Jyh-Horng Wu¹, Fang-Pang Lin¹ and Ching-Han Hsu^2,*

¹ National Center for High-Performance Computing, No. 7, R&D 6th Rd., Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu City 30076, Taiwan

² Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, No. 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2369-2387; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202369 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 9863

Abstract

Regional heavy rainfall is usually caused by the influence of extreme weather conditions. Instant heavy rainfall often results in the flooding of rivers and the neighboring low-lying areas, which is responsible for a large number of casualties and considerable property loss. The existing [...] Read more.

Regional heavy rainfall is usually caused by the influence of extreme weather conditions. Instant heavy rainfall often results in the flooding of rivers and the neighboring low-lying areas, which is responsible for a large number of casualties and considerable property loss. The existing precipitation forecast systems mostly focus on the analysis and forecast of large-scale areas but do not provide precise instant automatic monitoring and alert feedback for individual river areas and sections. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an easy method to automatically monitor the flood object of a specific area, based on the currently widely used remote cyber surveillance systems and image processing methods, in order to obtain instant flooding and waterlogging event feedback. The intrusion detection mode of these surveillance systems is used in this study, wherein a flood is considered a possible invasion object. Through the detection and verification of flood objects, automatic flood risk-level monitoring of specific individual river segments, as well as the automatic urban inundation detection, has become possible. The proposed method can better meet the practical needs of disaster prevention than the method of large-area forecasting. It also has several other advantages, such as flexibility in location selection, no requirement of a standard water-level ruler, and a relatively large field of view, when compared with the traditional water-level measurements using video screens. The results can offer prompt reference for appropriate disaster warning actions in small areas, making them more accurate and effective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyber-Physical Systems)

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11 pages, 1509 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Pressure Sensor via Optical Detection Based on a 1D Spin Transition Coordination Polymer

by Cătălin M. Jureschi^1,2, Jorge Linares^3,*, Aurelian Rotaru¹, Marie Hélène Ritti⁴, Michel Parlier⁴, Marinela M. Dîrtu⁵, Mariusz Wolff⁵ and Yann Garcia^5,*

¹ Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology Laboratory (AMNOL), "Stefan cel Mare" University, University Street 13, Suceava 720229, Romania

² Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Systèmes de Versailles, Université Versailles St Quentin, Versailles Cedex 78035, France

³ Groupe d'Etude de la Matière Condensée (GEMaC), CNRS-UMR 8635, Université Versailles St Quentin, Versailles Cedex 78035, France

⁴ ONERA - DMSC, 29 Avenue de la Division Leclerc, BP72, Chatillon Cedex 92322, France

⁵ Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Molecules, Solids, Reactivity (IMCN/MOST), Université catholique de Louvain, Place L. Pasteur 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1348, Belgium

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2388-2398; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202388 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 7942

Abstract

We have investigated the suitability of using the 1D spin crossover coordination polymer [Fe(4-(2’-hydroxyethyl)-1,2,4-triazole)₃]I₂∙H₂O, known to crossover around room temperature, as a pressure sensor via optical detection using various contact pressures up to 250 MPa. A dramatic [...] Read more.

We have investigated the suitability of using the 1D spin crossover coordination polymer [Fe(4-(2’-hydroxyethyl)-1,2,4-triazole)₃]I₂∙H₂O, known to crossover around room temperature, as a pressure sensor via optical detection using various contact pressures up to 250 MPa. A dramatic persistent colour change is observed. The experimental data, obtained by calorimetric and Mössbauer measurements, have been used for a theoretical analysis, in the framework of the Ising-like model, of the thermal and pressure induced spin state switching. The pressure (P)-temperature (T) phase diagram calculated for this compound has been used to obtain the P-T bistability region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 1777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of a CFD Model by Using 3D Sonic Anemometers to Analyse the Air Velocity Generated by an Air-Assisted Sprayer Equipped with Two Axial Fans

by F. Javier García-Ramos^*,†

, Hugo Malón^†, A. Javier Aguirre^†, Antonio Boné^†, Javier Puyuelo^† and Mariano Vidal^†

¹ Superior Polytechnic School, University of Zaragoza, 22071 Huesca, Spain

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2399-2418; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202399 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7131

Abstract

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the air flow generated by an air-assisted sprayer equipped with two axial fans was developed and validated by practical experiments in the laboratory. The CFD model was developed by considering the total air flow supplied by [...] Read more.

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the air flow generated by an air-assisted sprayer equipped with two axial fans was developed and validated by practical experiments in the laboratory. The CFD model was developed by considering the total air flow supplied by the sprayer fan to be the main parameter, rather than the outlet air velocity. The model was developed for three air flows corresponding to three fan blade settings and assuming that the sprayer is stationary. Actual measurements of the air velocity near the sprayer were taken using 3D sonic anemometers. The workspace sprayer was divided into three sections, and the air velocity was measured in each section on both sides of the machine at a horizontal distance of 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 m from the machine, and at heights of 1, 2, 3, and 4 m above the ground The coefficient of determination (R²) between the simulated and measured values was 0.859, which demonstrates a good correlation between the simulated and measured data. Considering the overall data, the air velocity values produced by the CFD model were not significantly different from the measured values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture and Forestry)

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19 pages, 912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Non-Uniformly Under-Sampled Blade Tip-Timing Signal Reconstruction Method for Blade Vibration Monitoring

by Zheng Hu^1,†, Jun Lin^1,*,†, Zhong-Sheng Chen¹, Yong-Min Yang¹ and Xue-Jun Li²

¹ Science and Technology on Integrated Logistics Support Laboratory, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

² Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Health Maintenance of Mechanical Equipment, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411100, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2419-2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202419 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 73 | Viewed by 7227

Abstract

High-speed blades are often prone to fatigue due to severe blade vibrations. In particular, synchronous vibrations can cause irreversible damages to the blade. Blade tip-timing methods (BTT) have become a promising way to monitor blade vibrations. However, synchronous vibrations are unsuitably monitored by [...] Read more.

High-speed blades are often prone to fatigue due to severe blade vibrations. In particular, synchronous vibrations can cause irreversible damages to the blade. Blade tip-timing methods (BTT) have become a promising way to monitor blade vibrations. However, synchronous vibrations are unsuitably monitored by uniform BTT sampling. Therefore, non-equally mounted probes have been used, which will result in the non-uniformity of the sampling signal. Since under-sampling is an intrinsic drawback of BTT methods, how to analyze non-uniformly under-sampled BTT signals is a big challenge. In this paper, a novel reconstruction method for non-uniformly under-sampled BTT data is presented. The method is based on the periodically non-uniform sampling theorem. Firstly, a mathematical model of a non-uniform BTT sampling process is built. It can be treated as the sum of certain uniform sample streams. For each stream, an interpolating function is required to prevent aliasing in the reconstructed signal. Secondly, simultaneous equations of all interpolating functions in each sub-band are built and corresponding solutions are ultimately derived to remove unwanted replicas of the original signal caused by the sampling, which may overlay the original signal. In the end, numerical simulations and experiments are carried out to validate the feasibility of the proposed method. The results demonstrate the accuracy of the reconstructed signal depends on the sampling frequency, the blade vibration frequency, the blade vibration bandwidth, the probe static offset and the number of samples. In practice, both types of blade vibration signals can be particularly reconstructed by non-uniform BTT data acquired from only two probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A 3D Microfluidic Chip for Electrochemical Detection of Hydrolysed Nucleic Bases by a Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

by Jana Vlachova^1,2, Katerina Tmejova^1,2, Pavel Kopel^1,2

, Maria Korabik³, Jan Zitka¹, David Hynek^1,2, Jindrich Kynicky⁴, Vojtech Adam^1,2 and Rene Kizek^1,2,*

¹ Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, Brno CZ-613 00, Czech Republic

² Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3058/10, Brno CZ-616 00, Czech Republic

³ Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, 14 Joliot-Curie, Wroclaw PL-50383, Poland

⁴ Karel Englis College, Sujanovo nam. 356/1, Brno CZ-602 00, Czech Republic

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2438-2452; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202438 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7893

Abstract

Modification of carbon materials, especially graphene-based materials, has wide applications in electrochemical detection such as electrochemical lab-on-chip devices. A glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with chemically alternated graphene oxide was used as a working electrode (glassy carbon modified by graphene oxide with sulphur [...] Read more.

Modification of carbon materials, especially graphene-based materials, has wide applications in electrochemical detection such as electrochemical lab-on-chip devices. A glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with chemically alternated graphene oxide was used as a working electrode (glassy carbon modified by graphene oxide with sulphur containing compounds and Nafion) for detection of nucleobases in hydrolysed samples (HCl pH = 2.9, 100 °C, 1 h, neutralization by NaOH). It was found out that modification, especially with trithiocyanuric acid, increased the sensitivity of detection in comparison with pure GCE. All processes were finally implemented in a microfluidic chip formed with a 3D printer by fused deposition modelling technology. As a material for chip fabrication, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene was chosen because of its mechanical and chemical stability. The chip contained the one chamber for the hydrolysis of the nucleic acid and another for the electrochemical detection by the modified GCE. This chamber was fabricated to allow for replacement of the GCE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from XIV. Workshop of Physical Chemists and Electrochemists)

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20 pages, 2501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Frequency Response and Scale-Factor of Tuning Fork Micro-Gyroscope Operating at Atmospheric Pressure

by Xukai Ding^1,2

, Hongsheng Li^1,2,*, Yunfang Ni^1,2 and Pengcheng Sang^1,2

¹ School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China

² Key Laboratory of Micro-Inertial Instrument and Advanced Navigation Technology of Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2453-2472; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202453 - 22 Jan 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6380

Abstract

This paper presents a study of the frequency response and the scale-factor of a tuning fork micro-gyroscope operating at atmospheric pressure in the presence of an interference sense mode by utilizing the approximate transfer function. The optimal demodulation phase (ODP), which is always [...] Read more.

This paper presents a study of the frequency response and the scale-factor of a tuning fork micro-gyroscope operating at atmospheric pressure in the presence of an interference sense mode by utilizing the approximate transfer function. The optimal demodulation phase (ODP), which is always ignored in vacuum packaged micro-gyroscopes but quite important in gyroscopes operating at atmospheric pressure, is obtained through the transfer function of the sense mode, including the primary mode and the interference mode. The approximate transfer function of the micro-gyroscope is deduced in consideration of the interference mode and the ODP. Then, the equation describing the scale-factor of the gyroscope is also obtained. The impacts of the interference mode and Q-factor on the frequency response and the scale-factor of the gyroscope are analyzed through numerical simulations. The relationship between the scale-factor and the demodulation phase is also illustrated and gives an effective way to find out the ODP in practice. The simulation results predicted by the transfer functions are in close agreement with the results of the experiments. The analyses and simulations can provide constructive guidance on bandwidth and sensitivity designs of the micro-gyroscopes operating at atmospheric pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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23 pages, 2202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Efficient Strategy for Throughput Improvement in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Sohail Jabbar^1,*

, Abid Ali Minhas¹, Muhammad Imran², Shehzad Khalid¹ and Kashif Saleem²

¹ Department of Computer Science, Bahria University Islamabad, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

² King Saud University, P.O. Box 92144, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2473-2495; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202473 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7684

Abstract

Network lifetime and throughput are one of the prime concerns while designing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, most of the existing schemes are either geared towards prolonging network lifetime or improving throughput. This paper presents an energy efficient routing scheme [...] Read more.

Network lifetime and throughput are one of the prime concerns while designing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, most of the existing schemes are either geared towards prolonging network lifetime or improving throughput. This paper presents an energy efficient routing scheme for throughput improvement in WSN. The proposed scheme exploits multilayer cluster design for energy efficient forwarding node selection, cluster heads rotation and both inter- and intra-cluster routing. To improve throughput, we rotate the role of cluster head among various nodes based on two threshold levels which reduces the number of dropped packets. We conducted simulations in the NS2 simulator to validate the performance of the proposed scheme. Simulation results demonstrate the performance efficiency of the proposed scheme in terms of various metrics compared to similar approaches published in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Computing for Mobile Security and Big Data Analytics)

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29 pages, 702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online Estimation of Allan Variance Coefficients Based on a Neural-Extended Kalman Filter

by Zhiyong Miao¹, Feng Shen^1,*, Dingjie Xu², Kunpeng He¹ and Chunmiao Tian³

¹ Department of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150000, China

² School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150000, China

³ Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150000, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2496-2524; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202496 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8453

Abstract

As a noise analysis method for inertial sensors, the traditional Allan variance method requires the storage of a large amount of data and manual analysis for an Allan variance graph. Although the existing online estimation methods avoid the storage of data and the [...] Read more.

As a noise analysis method for inertial sensors, the traditional Allan variance method requires the storage of a large amount of data and manual analysis for an Allan variance graph. Although the existing online estimation methods avoid the storage of data and the painful procedure of drawing slope lines for estimation, they require complex transformations and even cause errors during the modeling of dynamic Allan variance. To solve these problems, first, a new state-space model that directly models the stochastic errors to obtain a nonlinear state-space model was established for inertial sensors. Then, a neural-extended Kalman filter algorithm was used to estimate the Allan variance coefficients. The real noises of an ADIS16405 IMU and fiber optic gyro-sensors were analyzed by the proposed method and traditional methods. The experimental results show that the proposed method is more suitable to estimate the Allan variance coefficients than the traditional methods. Moreover, the proposed method effectively avoids the storage of data and can be easily implemented using an online processor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Gyroscopes and Navigation Systems)

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13 pages, 2428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Study of the Propagation of Fast Longitudinal Modes along wz-BN/AlN Thin Acoustic Waveguides

by Cinzia Caliendo

Istituto di Acustica e Sensori Corbino, IDASC-CNR, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Roma, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2525-2537; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202525 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5464

Abstract

The propagation of the fundamental symmetric Lamb mode S₀along wz-BN/AlN thin composite plates suitable for telecommunication and sensing applications is studied. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across the plate thickness revealed the presence of modes having longitudinal polarization, the [...] Read more.

The propagation of the fundamental symmetric Lamb mode S₀along wz-BN/AlN thin composite plates suitable for telecommunication and sensing applications is studied. The investigation of the acoustic field profile across the plate thickness revealed the presence of modes having longitudinal polarization, the Anisimkin Jr. plate modes (AMs), travelling at a phase velocity close to that of the wz-BN longitudinal bulk acoustic wave propagating in the same direction. The study of the S₀ mode phase velocity and coupling coefficient (K²) dispersion curves, for different electrical boundary conditions, has shown that eight different coupling configurations are allowable that exhibit a K² as high as about 4% and very high phase velocity (up to about 16,700 m/s). The effect of the thickness and material type of the metal floating electrode on the K² dispersion curves has also been investigated, specifically addressing the design of an enhanced coupling device. The gravimetric sensitivity of the BN/AlN-based acoustic waveguides was then calculated for both the AMs and elliptically polarized S₀ modes; the AM-based sensor velocity and attenuation shifts due to the viscosity of a surrounding liquid was theoretically predicted. The performed investigation suggests that wz-BN/AlN is a very promising substrate material suitable for developing GHz band devices with enhanced electroacoustic coupling efficiency and suitable for application in telecommunications and sensing fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)

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10 pages, 1557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Flexible Ultrasound Transducer Array with Micro-Machined Bulk PZT

by Zhe Wang^1,2,†, Qing-Tang Xue^1,2,†, Yuan-Quan Chen^1,2, Yi Shu^1,2, He Tian^1,2, Yi Yang^1,2, Dan Xie^1,2, Jian-Wen Luo³ and Tian-Ling Ren^1,2,*

¹ Institute of Microelectronics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

² Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and Technology (TNList), Beijing 100084, China

³ Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2538-2547; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202538 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 12138

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel flexible piezoelectric micro-machined ultrasound transducer, which is based on PZT and a polyimide substrate. The transducer is made on the polyimide substrate and packaged with medical polydimethylsiloxane. Instead of etching the PZT ceramic, this paper proposes a method [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a novel flexible piezoelectric micro-machined ultrasound transducer, which is based on PZT and a polyimide substrate. The transducer is made on the polyimide substrate and packaged with medical polydimethylsiloxane. Instead of etching the PZT ceramic, this paper proposes a method of putting diced PZT blocks into holes on the polyimide which are pre-etched. The device works in d31 mode and the electromechanical coupling factor is 22.25%. Its flexibility, good conformal contacting with skin surfaces and proper resonant frequency make the device suitable for heart imaging. The flexible packaging ultrasound transducer also has a good waterproof performance after hundreds of ultrasonic electric tests in water. It is a promising ultrasound transducer and will be an effective supplementary ultrasound imaging method in the practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors and Transducers for Applications in Biology, Medicine and NDT)

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17 pages, 5557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Interrogation Used for a Wireless Passive Pressure Sensor in an 800 °C High-Temperature Environment

by Huixin Zhang^1,2, Yingping Hong^1,2, Ting Liang^1,2, Hairui Zhang^1,2, Qiulin Tan^1,2, Chenyang Xue^1,2, Jun Liu^1,2, Wendong Zhang^1,2 and Jijun Xiong^1,2,*

¹ Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China

² Science and Technology on Electronic Test & Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2548-2564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202548 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6879

Abstract

A wireless passive pressure measurement system for an 800 °C high-temperature environment is proposed and the impedance variation caused by the mutual coupling between a read antenna and a LC resonant sensor is analyzed. The system consists of a ceramic-based LC resonant sensor, [...] Read more.

A wireless passive pressure measurement system for an 800 °C high-temperature environment is proposed and the impedance variation caused by the mutual coupling between a read antenna and a LC resonant sensor is analyzed. The system consists of a ceramic-based LC resonant sensor, a readout device for impedance phase interrogation, heat insulating material, and a composite temperature-pressure test platform. Performances of the pressure sensor are measured by the measurement system sufficiently, including pressure sensitivity at room temperature, zero drift from room temperature to 800 °C, and the pressure sensitivity under the 800 °C high temperature environment. The results show that the linearity of sensor is 0.93%, the repeatability is 6.6%, the hysteretic error is 1.67%, and the sensor sensitivity is 374 KHz/bar. The proposed measurement system, with high engineering value, demonstrates good pressure sensing performance in a high temperature environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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28 pages, 6747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyber-Physical Geographical Information Service-Enabled Control of Diverse In-Situ Sensors

by Nengcheng Chen^1,3,*

, Changjiang Xiao¹

, Fangling Pu², Xiaolei Wang¹, Chao Wang¹

, Zhili Wang² and Jianya Gong^1,3

¹ State Key Laboratory for Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China

² School of Electronic Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China

³ Collaborative Innovation Center of Geospatial Technology, Wuhan 430079, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2565-2592; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202565 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8110

Abstract

Realization of open online control of diverse in-situ sensors is a challenge. This paper proposes a Cyber-Physical Geographical Information Service-enabled method for control of diverse in-situ sensors, based on location-based instant sensing of sensors, which provides closed-loop feedbacks. The method adopts the concepts [...] Read more.

Realization of open online control of diverse in-situ sensors is a challenge. This paper proposes a Cyber-Physical Geographical Information Service-enabled method for control of diverse in-situ sensors, based on location-based instant sensing of sensors, which provides closed-loop feedbacks. The method adopts the concepts and technologies of newly developed cyber-physical systems (CPSs) to combine control with sensing, communication, and computation, takes advantage of geographical information service such as services provided by the Tianditu which is a basic geographic information service platform in China and Sensor Web services to establish geo-sensor applications, and builds well-designed human-machine interfaces (HMIs) to support online and open interactions between human beings and physical sensors through cyberspace. The method was tested with experiments carried out in two geographically distributed scientific experimental fields, Baoxie Sensor Web Experimental Field in Wuhan city and Yemaomian Landslide Monitoring Station in Three Gorges, with three typical sensors chosen as representatives using the prototype system Geospatial Sensor Web Common Service Platform. The results show that the proposed method is an open, online, closed-loop means of control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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21 pages, 1546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Extraction of Optimal Endmembers from Airborne Hyperspectral Imagery Using Iterative Error Analysis (IEA) and Spectral Discrimination Measurements

by Ahram Song^1,*

, Anjin Chang^2,*, Jaewan Choi³, Seokkeun Choi³ and Yongil Kim¹

¹ Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University, 1, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, Korea

² School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, 1, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, Korea

³ School of Civil Engineering, Chungbuk National University, 1 Chungdae-ro, Seowon-gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, Korea

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2593-2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202593 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5873

Abstract

Pure surface materials denoted by endmembers play an important role in hyperspectral processing in various fields. Many endmember extraction algorithms (EEAs) have been proposed to find appropriate endmember sets. Most studies involving the automatic extraction of appropriate endmembers without a priori information have [...] Read more.

Pure surface materials denoted by endmembers play an important role in hyperspectral processing in various fields. Many endmember extraction algorithms (EEAs) have been proposed to find appropriate endmember sets. Most studies involving the automatic extraction of appropriate endmembers without a priori information have focused on N-FINDR. Although there are many different versions of N-FINDR algorithms, computational complexity issues still remain and these algorithms cannot consider the case where spectrally mixed materials are extracted as final endmembers. A sequential endmember extraction-based algorithm may be more effective when the number of endmembers to be extracted is unknown. In this study, we propose a simple but accurate method to automatically determine the optimal endmembers using such a method. The proposed method consists of three steps for determining the proper number of endmembers and for removing endmembers that are repeated or contain mixed signatures using the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) images obtained from Iterative Error Analysis (IEA) and spectral discrimination measurements. A synthetic hyperpsectral image and two different airborne images such as Airborne Imaging Spectrometer for Application (AISA) and Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) data were tested using the proposed method, and our experimental results indicate that the final endmember set contained all of the distinct signatures without redundant endmembers and errors from mixed materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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15 pages, 1595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regeneration of Recombinant Antigen Microarrays for the Automated Monitoring of Antibodies against Zoonotic Pathogens in Swine Sera

by Verena K. Meyer, Catharina Kober, Reinhard Niessner and Michael Seidel^*

Chair for Analytical Chemistry and Institute of Hydrochemistry, Technische Universität München, Marchioninistrasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2614-2628; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202614 - 23 Jan 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7272

Abstract

The ability to regenerate immobilized proteins like recombinant antigens (rAgs) on surfaces is an unsolved problem for flow-based immunoassays on microarray analysis systems. The regeneration on microarray chip surfaces is achieved by changing the protein structures and desorption of antibodies. Afterwards, reactivation of [...] Read more.

The ability to regenerate immobilized proteins like recombinant antigens (rAgs) on surfaces is an unsolved problem for flow-based immunoassays on microarray analysis systems. The regeneration on microarray chip surfaces is achieved by changing the protein structures and desorption of antibodies. Afterwards, reactivation of immobilized protein antigens is necessary for reconstitution processes. Any backfolding should be managed in a way that antibodies are able to detect the protein antigens in the next measurement cycle. The regeneration of rAg microarrays was examined for the first time on the MCR3 flow-based chemiluminescence (CL) microarray analysis platform. The aim was to reuse rAg microarray chips in order to reduce the screening effort and costs. An antibody capturing format was used to detect antibodies against zoonotic pathogens in sera of slaughtered pigs. Different denaturation and reactivation buffers were tested. Acidic glycine-SDS buffer (pH 2.5) and 8 M guanidinium hydrochloride showed the best results in respect of denaturation efficiencies. The highest CL signals after regeneration were achieved with a carbonate buffer containing 10 mM DTT and 0.1% BSA for reactivation. Antibodies against Yersinia spp. and hepatitis E virus (HEV) were detected in swine sera on one immunochip over 4 days and 25 measurement cycles. Each cycle took 10 min for detection and regeneration. By using the rAg microarray chip, a fast and automated screening of antibodies against pathogens in sera of slaughtered pigs would be possible for zoonosis monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microarray Sensors)

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15 pages, 2121 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Ultrasensitive ECL Sensor for DNA Detection Based on Nicking Endonuclease-Assisted Target Recycling Amplification, Rolling Circle Amplification and Hemin/G-Quadruplex

by Fukang Luo^†, Guimin Xiang^†, Xiaoyun Pu^*, Juanchun Yu, Ming Chen and Guohui Chen

¹ Department of Clinical Laboratory, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2629-2643; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202629 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7736

Abstract

In this study, we describe a novel universal and highly sensitive strategy for the electrochemiluminescent (ECL) detection of sequence specific DNA at the aM level based on Nt.BbvCI (a nicking endonuclease)-assisted target recycling amplification (TRA), rolling circle amplification (RCA) and hemin/G-quadruplex. The target [...] Read more.

In this study, we describe a novel universal and highly sensitive strategy for the electrochemiluminescent (ECL) detection of sequence specific DNA at the aM level based on Nt.BbvCI (a nicking endonuclease)-assisted target recycling amplification (TRA), rolling circle amplification (RCA) and hemin/G-quadruplex. The target DNAs can hybridize with self-assembled capture probes and assistant probes to form “Y” junction structures on the electrode surface, thus triggering the execution of a TRA reaction with the aid of Nt.BbvCI. Then, the RCA reaction and the addition of hemin result in the production of numerous hemin/G-quadruplex, which consume the dissolved oxygen in the detection buffer and result in a significant ECL quenching effect toward the O₂/S₂O₈²⁻ system. The proposed strategy combines the amplification ability of TRA, RCA and the inherent high sensitivity of the ECL technique, thus enabling low aM (3.8 aM) detection for sequence-specific DNA and a wide linear range from 10.0 aM to 1.0 pM. At the same time, this novel strategy shows high selectivity against single-base mismatch sequences, which makes our novel universal and highly sensitive method a powerful addition to specific DNA sequence detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors for Pathogen Detection)

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18 pages, 1353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensing Properties of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Grown in MW Plasma Torch: Electronic and Electrochemical Behavior, Gas Sensing, Field Emission, IR Absorption

by Petra Majzlíková^1,2, Jiří Sedláček^1,2, Jan Prášek^1,2, Jan Pekárek^1,2, Vojtěch Svatoš¹, Alexander G. Bannov³, Ondřej Jašek^3,4, Petr Synek³, Marek Eliáš^3,4, Lenka Zajíčková^3,4

and Jaromír Hubálek^1,2,*

¹ Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Technická 3058/10, CZ‑61600 Brno, Czech Republic

² Centre of Sensors, Information and Communication Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Technická 3058/10, CZ‑61600 Brno, Czech Republic

³ Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, CZ‑62500 Brno, Czech Republic

⁴ Department of Physical Electronics, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, CZ‑61137 Brno, Czech Republic

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2644-2661; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202644 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 8433

Abstract

Vertically aligned multi-walled carbon nanotubes (VA-MWCNTs) with an average diameter below 80 nm and a thickness of the uniform VA-MWCNT layer of about 16 µm were grown in microwave plasma torch and tested for selected functional properties. IR absorption important for a construction [...] Read more.

Vertically aligned multi-walled carbon nanotubes (VA-MWCNTs) with an average diameter below 80 nm and a thickness of the uniform VA-MWCNT layer of about 16 µm were grown in microwave plasma torch and tested for selected functional properties. IR absorption important for a construction of bolometers was studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Basic electrochemical characterization was performed by cyclic voltammetry. Comparing the obtained results with the standard or MWCNT‑modified screen-printed electrodes, the prepared VA-MWCNT electrodes indicated their high potential for the construction of electrochemical sensors. Resistive CNT gas sensor revealed a good sensitivity to ammonia taking into account room temperature operation. Field emission detected from CNTs was suitable for the pressure sensing application based on the measurement of emission current in the diode structure with bending diaphragm. The advantages of microwave plasma torch growth of CNTs, i.e., fast processing and versatility of the process, can be therefore fully exploited for the integration of surface-bound grown CNTs into various sensing structures. Full article

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18 pages, 979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of FT-NIR Models for the Simultaneous Estimation of Chlorophyll and Nitrogen Content in Fresh Apple (Malus Domestica) Leaves

by Elena Tamburini^1,*

, Giuseppe Ferrari², Maria Gabriella Marchetti¹, Paola Pedrini¹

and Sergio Ferro³

¹ Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, Ferrara 44121, Italy

² CHI Italia S.r.l., Via Galileo Galilei, 34, Cornaredo (MI) 20010, Italy

³ Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara, 17-27, Ferrara 44121, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2662-2679; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202662 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7861

Abstract

Agricultural practices determine the level of food production and, to great extent, the state of the global environment. During the last decades, the indiscriminate recourse to fertilizers as well as the nitrogen losses from land application have been recognized as serious issues of [...] Read more.

Agricultural practices determine the level of food production and, to great extent, the state of the global environment. During the last decades, the indiscriminate recourse to fertilizers as well as the nitrogen losses from land application have been recognized as serious issues of modern agriculture, globally contributing to nitrate pollution. The development of a reliable Near-Infra-Red Spectroscopy (NIRS)-based method, for the simultaneous monitoring of nitrogen and chlorophyll in fresh apple (Malus domestica) leaves, was investigated on a set of 133 samples, with the aim of estimating the nutritional and physiological status of trees, in real time, cheaply and non-destructively. By means of a FT (Fourier Transform)-NIR instrument, Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression models were developed, spanning a concentration range of 0.577%–0.817% for the total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) content (R² = 0.983; SEC = 0.012; SEP = 0.028), and of 1.534–2.372 mg/g for the total chlorophyll content (R² = 0.941; SEC = 0.132; SEP = 0.162). Chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b contents were also evaluated (R² = 0.913; SEC = 0.076; SEP = 0.101 and R² = 0.899; SEC = 0.059; SEP = 0.101, respectively). All calibration models were validated by means of 47 independent samples. The NIR approach allows a rapid evaluation of the nitrogen and chlorophyll contents, and may represent a useful tool for determining nutritional and physiological status of plants, in order to allow a correction of nutrition programs during the season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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14 pages, 1037 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Preliminary Evaluation of a Nest Usage Sensor to Detect Double Nest Occupations of Laying Hens

by Mauro Zaninelli^1,*

, Annamaria Costa²

, Francesco Maria Tangorra², Luciana Rossi²

, Alessandro Agazzi² and Giovanni Savoini²

¹ Faculty of Agriculture, Università Telematica San Raffaele Roma, Via di Val Cannuta 247, 00166 Rome, Italy

² Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety (VESPA), Università Degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2680-2693; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202680 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5836

Abstract

Conventional cage systems will be replaced by housing systems that allow hens to move freely. These systems may improve hens’ welfare, but they lead to some disadvantages: disease, bone fractures, cannibalism, piling and lower egg production. New selection criteria for existing commercial strains [...] Read more.

Conventional cage systems will be replaced by housing systems that allow hens to move freely. These systems may improve hens’ welfare, but they lead to some disadvantages: disease, bone fractures, cannibalism, piling and lower egg production. New selection criteria for existing commercial strains should be identified considering individual data about laying performance and the behavior of hens. Many recording systems have been developed to collect these data. However, the management of double nest occupations remains critical for the correct egg-to-hen assignment. To limit such events, most systems adopt specific trap devices and additional mechanical components. Others, instead, only prevent these occurrences by narrowing the nest, without any detection and management. The aim of this study was to develop and test a nest usage “sensor”, based on imaging analysis, that is able to automatically detect a double nest occupation. Results showed that the developed sensor correctly identified the double nest occupation occurrences. Therefore, the imaging analysis resulted in being a useful solution that could simplify the nest construction for this type of recording system, allowing the collection of more precise and accurate data, since double nest occupations would be managed and the normal laying behavior of hens would not be discouraged by the presence of the trap devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Capacitance Variation Induced by Microfluidic Two-Phase Flow across Insulated Interdigital Electrodes in Lab-On-Chip Devices

by Tao Dong^1,2,3,* and Cátia Barbosa³

¹ Institute of Applied Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing 400067, China

² Chongqing Engineering Laboratory for Detection, Control and Integrated System, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing 400067, China

³ Department of Micro and Nano Systems Technology (IMST), Faculty of Technology and Maritime Sciences (TekMar), Buskerud and Vestfold University College (HBV), Borre 3184, Norway

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2694-2708; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202694 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9231

Abstract

Microfluidic two-phase flow detection has attracted plenty of interest in various areas of biology, medicine and chemistry. This work presents a capacitive sensor using insulated interdigital electrodes (IDEs) to detect the presence of droplets in a microchannel. This droplet sensor is composed [...] Read more.

Microfluidic two-phase flow detection has attracted plenty of interest in various areas of biology, medicine and chemistry. This work presents a capacitive sensor using insulated interdigital electrodes (IDEs) to detect the presence of droplets in a microchannel. This droplet sensor is composed of a glass substrate, patterned gold electrodes and an insulation layer. A polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) cover bonded to the multilayered structure forms a microchannel. Capacitance variation induced by the droplet passage was thoroughly investigated with both simulation and experimental work. Olive oil and deionized water were employed as the working fluids in the experiments to demonstrate the droplet sensor. The results show a good sensitivity of the droplet with the appropriate measurement connection. This capacitive droplet sensor is promising to be integrated into a lab-on-chip device for in situ monitoring/counting of droplets or bubbles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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14 pages, 2980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Sensitive and Selective Sensing of Hydrogen Peroxide Released from Pheochromocytoma Cells Based on Pt-Au Bimetallic Nanoparticles Electrodeposited on Reduced Graphene Sheets

by Guangxia Yu, Weixiang Wu, Xiaoqi Pan, Qiang Zhao, Xiaoyun Wei and Qing Lu^*

Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2709-2722; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202709 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 7072

Abstract

In this study, a high sensitive and selective hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) sensor was successfully constructed with Pt-Au bimetallic nanoparticles (Pt-Au NPs)/reduced graphene sheets (rGSs) hybrid films. Various molar ratios of Au to Pt and different electrodeposition conditions were evaluated [...] Read more.

In this study, a high sensitive and selective hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) sensor was successfully constructed with Pt-Au bimetallic nanoparticles (Pt-Au NPs)/reduced graphene sheets (rGSs) hybrid films. Various molar ratios of Au to Pt and different electrodeposition conditions were evaluated to control the morphology and electrocatalytic activity of the Pt-Au bimetallic nanoparticles. Upon optimal conditions, wide linear ranges from 1 µM to 1.78 mM and 1.78 mM to 16.8 mM were obtained, with a detection limit as low as 0.31 µM. Besides, due to the synergetic effects of the bimetallic NPs and rGSs, the amperometric H₂O₂ sensor could operate at a low potential of 0 V. Under this potential, not only common anodic interferences induced from ascorbic acid, uric acid and dopamine, but also the cathodic interference induced from endogenous O₂ could be effectively avoided. Furthermore, with rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC 12) as model, the proposed sensor had been successfully used in the detection of H₂O₂ released from the cancer cells. This method with wide linear ranges and excellent selectivity can provide a promising alternative for H₂O₂ monitoring in vivo in the fields of physiology, pathology and diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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14 pages, 1080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fourier-Sparsity Integrated Method for Complex Target ISAR Imagery

by Xunzhang Gao^*, Zhen Liu, Haowen Chen and Xiang Li

College of Electronic Science and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2723-2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202723 - 26 Jan 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5867

Abstract

In existing sparsity-driven inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging framework a sparse recovery (SR) algorithm is usually applied to azimuth compression to achieve high resolution in the cross-range direction. For range compression, however, direct application of an SR algorithm is not very effective [...] Read more.

In existing sparsity-driven inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging framework a sparse recovery (SR) algorithm is usually applied to azimuth compression to achieve high resolution in the cross-range direction. For range compression, however, direct application of an SR algorithm is not very effective because the scattering centers resolved in the high resolution range profiles at different view angles always exhibit irregular range cell migration (RCM), especially for complex targets, which will blur the ISAR image. To alleviate the sparse recovery-induced RCM in range compression, a sparsity-driven framework for ISAR imaging named Fourier-sparsity integrated (FSI) method is proposed in this paper, which can simultaneously achieve better focusing performance in both the range and cross-range domains. Experiments using simulated data and real data demonstrate the superiority of our proposed framework over existing sparsity-driven methods and range-Doppler methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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26 pages, 1004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surveying Multidisciplinary Aspects in Real-Time Distributed Coding for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Carlo Braccini^1,2, Franco Davoli^1,2,*, Mario Marchese^1,2 and Maurizio Mongelli³

¹ Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering, and Naval Architecture (DITEN), University of Genoa, Via Opera Pia 13, 16145 Genoa, Italy

² National Inter-University Consortium for Telecommunications (CNIT)–University of Genoa Research Unit, Via Opera Pia 13, 16145 Genoa, Italy

³ Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering, National Research Council of Italy (IEIIT-CNR), Genoa Site, Area della Ricerca, Via De Marini, 6-16149 Genoa, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2737-2762; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202737 - 27 Jan 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6148

Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), where a multiplicity of sensors observe a physical phenomenon and transmit their measurements to one or more sinks, pertain to the class of multi-terminal source and channel coding problems of Information Theory. In this category, “real-time” coding is often [...] Read more.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), where a multiplicity of sensors observe a physical phenomenon and transmit their measurements to one or more sinks, pertain to the class of multi-terminal source and channel coding problems of Information Theory. In this category, “real-time” coding is often encountered for WSNs, referring to the problem of finding the minimum distortion (according to a given measure), under transmission power constraints, attainable by encoding and decoding functions, with stringent limits on delay and complexity. On the other hand, the Decision Theory approach seeks to determine the optimal coding/decoding strategies or some of their structural properties. Since encoder(s) and decoder(s) possess different information, though sharing a common goal, the setting here is that of Team Decision Theory. A more pragmatic vision rooted in Signal Processing consists of fixing the form of the coding strategies (e.g., to linear functions) and, consequently, finding the corresponding optimal decoding strategies and the achievable distortion, generally by applying parametric optimization techniques. All approaches have a long history of past investigations and recent results. The goal of the present paper is to provide the taxonomy of the various formulations, a survey of the vast related literature, examples from the authors’ own research, and some highlights on the inter-play of the different theories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy 2014)

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11 pages, 4110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Characterization of Instantaneous Young’s Modulus and Specific Membrane Capacitance of Single Cells Using a Microfluidic System

by Yang Zhao¹, Deyong Chen¹, Yana Luo¹, Feng Chen¹, Xiaoting Zhao², Mei Jiang², Wentao Yue², Rong Long^3,*, Junbo Wang^1,* and Jian Chen^1,*

¹ State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

² Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 101149, China

³ Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G8, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2763-2773; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202763 - 27 Jan 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7285

Abstract

This paper presents a microfluidics-based approach capable of continuously characterizing instantaneous Young’s modulus (E_{instantaneous}) and specific membrane capacitance (C_{specific membrane}) of suspended single cells. In this method, cells were aspirated through a constriction channel while the cellular [...] Read more.

This paper presents a microfluidics-based approach capable of continuously characterizing instantaneous Young’s modulus (E_{instantaneous}) and specific membrane capacitance (C_{specific membrane}) of suspended single cells. In this method, cells were aspirated through a constriction channel while the cellular entry process into the constriction channel was recorded using a high speed camera and the impedance profiles at two frequencies (1 kHz and 100 kHz) were simultaneously measured by a lock-in amplifier. Numerical simulations were conducted to model cellular entry process into the constriction channel, focusing on two key parameters: instantaneous aspiration length (L_{instantaneous}) and transitional aspiration length (L_transitional), which was further translated to E_{instantaneous}. An equivalent distribution circuit model for a cell travelling in the constriction channel was used to determine C_{specific membrane}. A non-small-cell lung cancer cell line 95C (n = 354) was used to evaluate this technique, producing E_{instantaneous} of 2.96 ± 0.40 kPa and C_{specific membrane} of 1.59 ± 0.28 μF/cm². As a platform for continuous and simultaneous characterization of cellular E_{instantaneous} and C_{specific membrane}, this approach can facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of cellular biophysical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On-Chip Sensors)

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24 pages, 853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anomaly Detection Based on Sensor Data in Petroleum Industry Applications

by Luis Martí^1,*, Nayat Sanchez-Pi², José Manuel Molina³ and Ana Cristina Bicharra Garcia⁴

¹ Department of Electrical Engineering, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil

² Instituto de Lógica, Filosofia e Teoria da Ciéncia (ILTC), Niterói 24020-042, Brazil

³ Department of Informatics, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Colmenarejo, Madrid 28270, Spain

⁴ ADDLabs, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói 24210-340, Brazil

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2774-2797; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202774 - 27 Jan 2015

Cited by 136 | Viewed by 15384

Abstract

Anomaly detection is the problem of finding patterns in data that do not conform to an a priori expected behavior. This is related to the problem in which some samples are distant, in terms of a given metric, from the rest of the [...] Read more.

Anomaly detection is the problem of finding patterns in data that do not conform to an a priori expected behavior. This is related to the problem in which some samples are distant, in terms of a given metric, from the rest of the dataset, where these anomalous samples are indicated as outliers. Anomaly detection has recently attracted the attention of the research community, because of its relevance in real-world applications, like intrusion detection, fraud detection, fault detection and system health monitoring, among many others. Anomalies themselves can have a positive or negative nature, depending on their context and interpretation. However, in either case, it is important for decision makers to be able to detect them in order to take appropriate actions. The petroleum industry is one of the application contexts where these problems are present. The correct detection of such types of unusual information empowers the decision maker with the capacity to act on the system in order to correctly avoid, correct or react to the situations associated with them. In that application context, heavy extraction machines for pumping and generation operations, like turbomachines, are intensively monitored by hundreds of sensors each that send measurements with a high frequency for damage prevention. In this paper, we propose a combination of yet another segmentation algorithm (YASA), a novel fast and high quality segmentation algorithm, with a one-class support vector machine approach for efficient anomaly detection in turbomachines. The proposal is meant for dealing with the aforementioned task and to cope with the lack of labeled training data. As a result, we perform a series of empirical studies comparing our approach to other methods applied to benchmark problems and a real-life application related to oil platform turbomachinery anomaly detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 3761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Lipase/Esterase Activity by Stopped Flow in a Sequential Injection Analysis System Using p-Nitrophenyl Butyrate

by Jorge Pliego¹, Juan Carlos Mateos¹, Jorge Rodriguez¹, Francisco Valero², Mireia Baeza³, Ricardo Femat⁴, Rosa Camacho¹

, Georgina Sandoval¹

and Enrique J. Herrera-López^1,*

¹ Biotecnología Industrial, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C., Avenida Normalistas 800, Colinas de la Normal. C.P. 44270, Guadalajara Jalisco, Mexico

² Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Escola d'Enginyeria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain

³ Departament de Química, Facultat de Ciències, Edifici C-Nord, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain

⁴ Grupo de Biodinámica y Sistemas Alineales, División de Matemáticas Aplicadas, Instituto Potosinode Investigación Científicay Tecnológica. A.C. Camino a la Presa San José 2055, Lomas 4 Sección, C.P. 78216, San Luis Potosí S.L.P., Mexico

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2798-2811; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202798 - 27 Jan 2015

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 12582

Abstract

Lipases and esterases are biocatalysts used at the laboratory and industrial level. To obtain the maximum yield in a bioprocess, it is important to measure key variables, such as enzymatic activity. The conventional method for monitoring hydrolytic activity is to take out a [...] Read more.

Lipases and esterases are biocatalysts used at the laboratory and industrial level. To obtain the maximum yield in a bioprocess, it is important to measure key variables, such as enzymatic activity. The conventional method for monitoring hydrolytic activity is to take out a sample from the bioreactor to be analyzed off-line at the laboratory. The disadvantage of this approach is the long time required to recover the information from the process, hindering the possibility to develop control systems. New strategies to monitor lipase/esterase activity are necessary. In this context and in the first approach, we proposed a lab-made sequential injection analysis system to analyze off-line samples from shake flasks. Lipase/esterase activity was determined using p-nitrophenyl butyrate as the substrate. The sequential injection analysis allowed us to measure the hydrolytic activity from a sample without dilution in a linear range from 0.05–1.60 U/mL, with the capability to reach sample dilutions up to 1000 times, a sampling frequency of five samples/h, with a kinetic reaction of 5 min and a relative standard deviation of 8.75%. The results are promising to monitor lipase/esterase activity in real time, in which optimization and control strategies can be designed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Bioprocess Monitoring and Control)

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20 pages, 829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Active Cooperation-Aware Spectrum Allocation Mechanism for Body Sensor Networks

by Fu Jiang¹, Ying Guo^1,2,*

, Jun Peng¹ and Jiankun Hu²

¹ School of Information Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China

² School of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of New South Wales at the Australian Defense Force Academy, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2812-2831; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202812 - 28 Jan 2015

Viewed by 5633

Abstract

A cognitive radio-based spectrum allocation scheme using an active cooperative-aware mechanism is proposed in this paper. The scheme ensures that the primary user and secondary users cooperate actively for their own benefits. The primary user releases some spectrum resources to secondary users to [...] Read more.

A cognitive radio-based spectrum allocation scheme using an active cooperative-aware mechanism is proposed in this paper. The scheme ensures that the primary user and secondary users cooperate actively for their own benefits. The primary user releases some spectrum resources to secondary users to actively stimulate them to actively join the cooperative transmission of the primary user, and secondary users help the primary user to relay data in return, as well as its self-data transmission at the same time. The Stackelberg game is used to evenly and jointly optimize the utilities of both the primary and secondary users. Simulation results show that the proposed active cooperation-aware mechanism could improve the body sensor network performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Network for Pervasive Medical Care)

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28 pages, 2871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adding Pluggable and Personalized Natural Control Capabilities to Existing Applications

by Fabrizio Lamberti^*

, Andrea Sanna

, Gilles Carlevaris and Claudio Demartini

Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2832-2859; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202832 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6087

Abstract

Advancements in input device and sensor technologies led to the evolution of the traditional human-machine interaction paradigm based on the mouse and keyboard. Touch-, gesture- and voice-based interfaces are integrated today in a variety of applications running on consumer devices (e.g., gaming consoles [...] Read more.

Advancements in input device and sensor technologies led to the evolution of the traditional human-machine interaction paradigm based on the mouse and keyboard. Touch-, gesture- and voice-based interfaces are integrated today in a variety of applications running on consumer devices (e.g., gaming consoles and smartphones). However, to allow existing applications running on desktop computers to utilize natural interaction, significant re-design and re-coding efforts may be required. In this paper, a framework designed to transparently add multi-modal interaction capabilities to applications to which users are accustomed is presented. Experimental observations confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed framework and led to a classification of those applications that could benefit more from the availability of natural interaction modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HCI In Smart Environments)

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13 pages, 1919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Cover Photography for Estimating Leaf Area Index (LAI) in Apple Trees Using a Variable Light Extinction Coefficient

by Carlos Poblete-Echeverría^1,*, Sigfredo Fuentes²

, Samuel Ortega-Farias¹

, Jaime Gonzalez-Talice³ and Jose Antonio Yuri³

¹ Research and Extension Center for Irrigation and Agroclimatology (CITRA), Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile

² Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia

³ Centro de Pomaceas, Universidad de Talca, Talca 3460000, Chile

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2860-2872; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202860 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 9385

Abstract

Leaf area index (LAI) is one of the key biophysical variables required for crop modeling. Direct LAI measurements are time consuming and difficult to obtain for experimental and commercial fruit orchards. Devices used to estimate LAI have shown considerable errors when compared to [...] Read more.

Leaf area index (LAI) is one of the key biophysical variables required for crop modeling. Direct LAI measurements are time consuming and difficult to obtain for experimental and commercial fruit orchards. Devices used to estimate LAI have shown considerable errors when compared to ground-truth or destructive measurements, requiring tedious site-specific calibrations. The objective of this study was to test the performance of a modified digital cover photography method to estimate LAI in apple trees using conventional digital photography and instantaneous measurements of incident radiation (I_o) and transmitted radiation (I) through the canopy. Leaf area of 40 single apple trees were measured destructively to obtain real leaf area index (LAI_D), which was compared with LAI estimated by the proposed digital photography method (LAI_M). Results showed that the LAI_M was able to estimate LAI_D with an error of 25% using a constant light extinction coefficient (k = 0.68). However, when k was estimated using an exponential function based on the fraction of foliage cover (f_f) derived from images, the error was reduced to 18%. Furthermore, when measurements of light intercepted by the canopy (I_c) were used as a proxy value for k, the method presented an error of only 9%. These results have shown that by using a proxy k value, estimated by I_c, helped to increase accuracy of LAI estimates using digital cover images for apple trees with different canopy sizes and under field conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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15 pages, 7427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Harmful Algal Bloom of Karenia brevis in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico as Revealed by MODIS and VIIRS: A Comparison

by Chuanmin Hu^1,*, Brian B. Barnes¹, Lin Qi¹ and Alina A. Corcoran²

¹ College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA

² Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2873-2887; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202873 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 8045

Abstract

The most recent Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) is not equipped with a spectral band to detect solar-stimulated phytoplankton fluorescence. The lack of such a band may affect the ability of VIIRS to detect and quantify harmful algal blooms (HABs) in coastal [...] Read more.

The most recent Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) is not equipped with a spectral band to detect solar-stimulated phytoplankton fluorescence. The lack of such a band may affect the ability of VIIRS to detect and quantify harmful algal blooms (HABs) in coastal waters rich in colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) because of the overlap of CDOM and chlorophyll absorption within the blue-green spectrum. A recent HAB dominated by the toxin-producing dinoflagellate Karenia brevis in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, offshore of Florida’s Big Bend region, allowed for comparison of the capacities of VIIRS and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to detect blooms in CDOM-rich waters. Both VIIRS and MODIS showed general consistency in mapping the CDOM-rich dark water, which measured a maximum area of 8900 km² by mid-July 2014. However, within the dark water, only MODIS allowed detection of bloom patches—as indicated by high normalized fluorescence line height (nFLH). Field surveys between late July and mid-September confirmed Karenia brevis at bloom abundances up to 20 million cells·L⁻¹ within these patches. The bloom patches were well captured by the MODIS nFLH images, but not by the default chlorophyll a concentration (Chla) images from either MODIS or VIIRS. Spectral analysis showed that VIIRS could not discriminate these high-phytoplankton water patches within the dark water due to its lack of fluorescence band. Such a deficiency may be overcome with new algorithms or future satellite missions such as the U.S. NASA’s Pre-Aerosol-Clouds-Ecology mission and the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-3 mission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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14 pages, 3206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Odor Interaction between Aldehyde Compounds via a Partial Differential Equation (PDE) Model

by LuchunYan^*, Jiemin Liu^*, Chen Qu, Xingye Gu and Xia Zhao

School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Xueyuan Road 30, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2888-2901; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202888 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7321

Abstract

In order to explore the odor interaction of binary odor mixtures, a series of odor intensity evaluation tests were performed using both individual components and binary mixtures of aldehydes. Based on the linear relation between the logarithm of odor activity value and odor [...] Read more.

In order to explore the odor interaction of binary odor mixtures, a series of odor intensity evaluation tests were performed using both individual components and binary mixtures of aldehydes. Based on the linear relation between the logarithm of odor activity value and odor intensity of individual substances, the relationship between concentrations of individual constituents and their joint odor intensity was investigated by employing a partial differential equation (PDE) model. The obtained results showed that the binary odor interaction was mainly influenced by the mixing ratio of two constituents, but not the concentration level of an odor sample. Besides, an extended PDE model was also proposed on the basis of the above experiments. Through a series of odor intensity matching tests for several different binary odor mixtures, the extended PDE model was proved effective at odor intensity prediction. Furthermore, odorants of the same chemical group and similar odor type exhibited similar characteristics in the binary odor interaction. The overall results suggested that the PDE model is a more interpretable way of demonstrating the odor interactions of binary odor mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Sensing Pollution in Air, Water, and Soil)

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18 pages, 5475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing Accuracy of Long-Range Ultrasonic Sensors for Olive Tree Canopy Measurements

by Juan Luis Gamarra-Diezma¹, Antonio Miranda-Fuentes^1,*, Jordi Llorens¹

, Andrés Cuenca¹, Gregorio L. Blanco-Roldán¹ and Antonio Rodríguez-Lizana²

¹ Dpto. de Ingeniería Rural, Área de Mecanización y Tecnología Rural, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba 14005, Spain

² Dpto. de Ingeniería Aeroespacial y Mecánica de Fluidos, Área de Ingeniería Agroforestal, Universidad de Sevilla, Ctra. de Utrera, km 1. 41013 Sevilla, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2902-2919; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202902 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9167

Abstract

Ultrasonic sensors are often used to adjust spray volume by allowing the calculation of the crown volume of tree crops. The special conditions of the olive tree require the use of long-range sensors, which are less accurate and faster than the most commonly [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic sensors are often used to adjust spray volume by allowing the calculation of the crown volume of tree crops. The special conditions of the olive tree require the use of long-range sensors, which are less accurate and faster than the most commonly used sensors. The main objectives of the study were to determine the suitability of the sensor in terms of sound cone determination, angle errors, crosstalk errors and field measurements. Different laboratory tests were performed to check the suitability of a commercial long-range ultrasonic sensor, as were the experimental determination of the sound cone diameter at several distances for several target materials, the determination of the influence of the angle of incidence of the sound wave on the target and distance on the accuracy of measurements for several materials and the determination of the importance of the errors due to interference between sensors for different sensor spacings and distances for two different materials. Furthermore, sensor accuracy was tested under real field conditions. The results show that the studied sensor is appropriate for olive trees because the sound cone is narrower for an olive tree than for the other studied materials, the olive tree canopy does not have a large influence on the sensor accuracy with respect to distance and angle, the interference errors are insignificant for high sensor spacings and the sensor’s field distance measurements were deemed sufficiently accurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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24 pages, 1257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Biomass and Canopy Height in Bermudagrass, Alfalfa, and Wheat Using Ultrasonic, Laser, and Spectral Sensors

by Jeremy Joshua Pittman^1,2,*, Daryl Brian Arnall², Sindy M. Interrante¹, Corey A. Moffet¹ and Twain J. Butler¹

¹ The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Ardmore, OK 73401, USA

² Oklahoma State University Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2920-2943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202920 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 9766

Abstract

Non-destructive biomass estimation of vegetation has been performed via remote sensing as well as physical measurements. An effective method for estimating biomass must have accuracy comparable to the accepted standard of destructive removal. Estimation or measurement of height is commonly employed to create [...] Read more.

Non-destructive biomass estimation of vegetation has been performed via remote sensing as well as physical measurements. An effective method for estimating biomass must have accuracy comparable to the accepted standard of destructive removal. Estimation or measurement of height is commonly employed to create a relationship between height and mass. This study examined several types of ground-based mobile sensing strategies for forage biomass estimation. Forage production experiments consisting of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.], and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were employed to examine sensor biomass estimation (laser, ultrasonic, and spectral) as compared to physical measurements (plate meter and meter stick) and the traditional harvest method (clipping). Predictive models were constructed via partial least squares regression and modeled estimates were compared to the physically measured biomass. Least significant difference separated mean estimates were examined to evaluate differences in the physical measurements and sensor estimates for canopy height and biomass. Differences between methods were minimal (average percent error of 11.2% for difference between predicted values versus machine and quadrat harvested biomass values (1.64 and 4.91 t·ha⁻¹, respectively), except at the lowest measured biomass (average percent error of 89% for harvester and quad harvested biomass < 0.79 t·ha⁻¹) and greatest measured biomass (average percent error of 18% for harvester and quad harvested biomass >6.4 t·ha⁻¹). These data suggest that using mobile sensor-based biomass estimation models could be an effective alternative to the traditional clipping method for rapid, accurate in-field biomass estimation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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20 pages, 1278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Frequency Variations of Earth Rotation Parameters from GPS and GLONASS Observations

by Erhu Wei^1,*, Shuanggen Jin^2,3,*

, Lihua Wan^1,4, Wenjie Liu¹, Yali Yang¹ and Zhenghong Hu¹

¹ School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China

² Department of Geosmatics Engineering, Bulent Ecevit University, Zonguldak 67100, Turkey

³ Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China

⁴ Earth Oriented Space Science and Technology, Technische Universität München, Munich 80333, Germany

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2944-2963; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202944 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7686

Abstract

The Earth’s rotation undergoes changes with the influence of geophysical factors, such as Earth’s surface fluid mass redistribution of the atmosphere, ocean and hydrology. However, variations of Earth Rotation Parameters (ERP) are still not well understood, particularly the short-period variations (e.g., diurnal and [...] Read more.

The Earth’s rotation undergoes changes with the influence of geophysical factors, such as Earth’s surface fluid mass redistribution of the atmosphere, ocean and hydrology. However, variations of Earth Rotation Parameters (ERP) are still not well understood, particularly the short-period variations (e.g., diurnal and semi-diurnal variations) and their causes. In this paper, the hourly time series of Earth Rotation Parameters are estimated using Global Positioning System (GPS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), and combining GPS and GLONASS data collected from nearly 80 sites from 1 November 2012 to 10 April 2014. These new observations with combining different satellite systems can help to decorrelate orbit biases and ERP, which improve estimation of ERP. The high frequency variations of ERP are analyzed using a de-trending method. The maximum of total diurnal and semidiurnal variations are within one milli-arcseconds (mas) in Polar Motion (PM) and 0.5 milli-seconds (ms) in UT1-UTC. The semidiurnal and diurnal variations are mainly related to the ocean tides. Furthermore, the impacts of satellite orbit and time interval used to determinate ERP on the amplitudes of tidal terms are analyzed. We obtain some small terms that are not described in the ocean tide model of the IERS Conventions 2010, which may be caused by the strategies and models we used or the signal noises as well as artifacts. In addition, there are also small differences on the amplitudes between our results and IERS convention. This might be a result of other geophysical excitations, such as the high-frequency variations in atmospheric angular momentum (AAM) and hydrological angular momentum (HAM), which needs more detailed analysis with more geophysical data in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Data Fusion Method in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Davood Izadi¹, Jemal H. Abawajy¹, Sara Ghanavati¹ and Tutut Herawan^2,*

¹ School of Information Technology, Deakin University, 3220 Waurn Ponds, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia

² Department of Information System, University of Malaya, 50603 Pantai Valley, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2964-2979; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202964 - 28 Jan 2015

Cited by 115 | Viewed by 9657

Abstract

The success of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) deployment strongly depends on the quality of service (QoS) it provides regarding issues such as data accuracy, data aggregation delays and network lifetime maximisation. This is especially challenging in data fusion mechanisms, where a small [...] Read more.

The success of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) deployment strongly depends on the quality of service (QoS) it provides regarding issues such as data accuracy, data aggregation delays and network lifetime maximisation. This is especially challenging in data fusion mechanisms, where a small fraction of low quality data in the fusion input may negatively impact the overall fusion result. In this paper, we present a fuzzy-based data fusion approach for WSN with the aim of increasing the QoS whilst reducing the energy consumption of the sensor network. The proposed approach is able to distinguish and aggregate only true values of the collected data as such, thus reducing the burden of processing the entire data at the base station (BS). It is also able to eliminate redundant data and consequently reduce energy consumption thus increasing the network lifetime. We studied the effectiveness of the proposed data fusion approach experimentally and compared it with two baseline approaches in terms of data collection, number of transferred data packets and energy consumption. The results of the experiments show that the proposed approach achieves better results than the baseline approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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19 pages, 7354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Citizen Sensors for SHM: Use of Accelerometer Data from Smartphones

by Maria Feng, Yoshio Fukuda, Masato Mizuta and Ekin Ozer^*

Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia University, 500 W 120th St, New York, NY 10027, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2980-2998; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202980 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 130 | Viewed by 11866

Abstract

Ubiquitous smartphones have created a significant opportunity to form a low-cost wireless Citizen Sensor network and produce big data for monitoring structural integrity and safety under operational and extreme loads. Such data are particularly useful for rapid assessment of structural damage in a [...] Read more.

Ubiquitous smartphones have created a significant opportunity to form a low-cost wireless Citizen Sensor network and produce big data for monitoring structural integrity and safety under operational and extreme loads. Such data are particularly useful for rapid assessment of structural damage in a large urban setting after a major event such as an earthquake. This study explores the utilization of smartphone accelerometers for measuring structural vibration, from which structural health and post-event damage can be diagnosed. Widely available smartphones are tested under sinusoidal wave excitations with frequencies in the range relevant to civil engineering structures. Large-scale seismic shaking table tests, observing input ground motion and response of a structural model, are carried out to evaluate the accuracy of smartphone accelerometers under operational, white-noise and earthquake excitations of different intensity. Finally, the smartphone accelerometers are tested on a dynamically loaded bridge. The extensive experiments show satisfactory agreements between the reference and smartphone sensor measurements in both time and frequency domains, demonstrating the capability of the smartphone sensors to measure structural responses ranging from low-amplitude ambient vibration to high-amplitude seismic response. Encouraged by the results of this study, the authors are developing a citizen-engaging and data-analytics crowdsourcing platform towards a smartphone-based Citizen Sensor network for structural health monitoring and post-event damage assessment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)

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24 pages, 1596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of a Prototype with a Standardized Interface for Transducers in Ambient Assisted Living

by Enrique Dorronzoro^*, Isabel Gómez^†

, Ana Verónica Medina^† and José Antonio Gómez^†

¹ Department of Electronic Technology, Universidad de Sevilla, Avda, de Reina Mercedes S/N, 41012 Seville, Spain

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2999-3022; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202999 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6709

Abstract

Solutions in the field of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) do not generally use standards to implement a communication interface between sensors and actuators. This makes these applications isolated solutions because it is so difficult to integrate them into new or existing systems. The [...] Read more.

Solutions in the field of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) do not generally use standards to implement a communication interface between sensors and actuators. This makes these applications isolated solutions because it is so difficult to integrate them into new or existing systems. The objective of this research was to design and implement a prototype with a standardized interface for sensors and actuators to facilitate the integration of different solutions in the field of AAL. Our work is based on the roadmap defined by AALIANCE, using motes with TinyOS telosb, 6LoWPAN, sensors, and the IEEE 21451 standard protocol. This prototype allows one to upgrade sensors to a smart status for easy integration with new applications and already existing ones. The prototype has been evaluated for autonomy and performance. As a use case, the prototype has been tested in a serious game previously designed for people with mobility problems, and its advantages and disadvantages have been analysed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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18 pages, 2801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Insulator Contaminations Revealed by Daily Observations of Equivalent Salt Deposit Density

by Ling Ruan^1,†, Ge Han^2,*,†

, Zhongmin Zhu³, Miao Zhang² and Wei Gong²

¹ State Grid Key Laboratory of High-Voltage Field-Test Technique, Electric Power Research Institute of Hubei Power Grid Corporation, Wuhan 430077, China

² State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Luoyu Road 129, Wuhan 430079, China

³ College of Information Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuchang Branch, Wuhan 430064, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3023-3040; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203023 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5851

Abstract

The accurate estimation of deposits adhering on insulators is of great significance to prevent pollution flashovers which cause huge costs worldwide. Researchers have developed sensors using different technologies to monitor insulator contamination on a fine time scale. However, there is lack of analysis [...] Read more.

The accurate estimation of deposits adhering on insulators is of great significance to prevent pollution flashovers which cause huge costs worldwide. Researchers have developed sensors using different technologies to monitor insulator contamination on a fine time scale. However, there is lack of analysis of these data to reveal spatial and temporal characteristics of insulator contamination, and as a result the scheduling of periodical maintenance of power facilities is highly dependent on personal experience. Owing to the deployment of novel sensors, daily Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD) observations of over two years were collected and analyzed for the first time. Results from 16 sites distributed in four regions of Hubei demonstrated that spatial heterogeneity can be seen at both the fine and coarse geographical scales, suggesting that current polluted area maps are necessary but are not sufficient conditions to guide the maintenance of power facilities. Both the local emission and the regional air pollution condition exert evident influences on deposit accumulation. A relationship between ESDD and PM₁₀ was revealed by using regression analysis, proving that air pollution exerts influence on pollution accumulations on insulators. Moreover, the seasonality of ESDD was discovered for the first time by means of time series analysis, which could help engineers select appropriate times to clean the contamination. Besides, the trend component shows that the ESDD increases in a negative exponential fashion with the accumulation date (ESDD = a − b × exp(−time)) at a long time scale in real environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensors for Chemical, Biological and Industrial Applications)

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29 pages, 3802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LIDAR Developments at Clermont-Ferrand—France for Atmospheric Observation

by Patrick Fréville^1,*, Nadège Montoux², Jean-Luc Baray^1,2

, Aurélien Chauvigné², François Réveret³, Maxime Hervo^2,4, Davide Dionisi⁵

, Guillaume Payen⁶ and Karine Sellegri²

¹ Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand, Université Blaise Pascal, 24 av. des Landais, BP80026, Aubière Cedex 63171, France

² Laboratoire de Météorologie Physique–UMR 6016, Université Blaise Pascal, CNRS, 24 av. des Landais, BP 80026, Aubière Cedex 63171, France

³ Institut Pascal—UMR 6602, Université Blaise Pascal, CNRS, 24 av. des Landais, BP 80026, Aubière Cedex 63171, France

⁴ Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology, MeteoSwiss, Payerne 1530, Switzerland

⁵ Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Roma 00133, Italy

⁶ Observatoire de Sciences de l'Univers-Réunion, UMS 3365, CNRS, Université de la Réunion, Saint Denis de la Réunion 97744, France

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3041-3069; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203041 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7815

Abstract

We present a Rayleigh-Mie-Raman LIDAR system in operation at Clermont-Ferrand (France) since 2008. The system provides continuous vertical tropospheric profiles of aerosols, cirrus optical properties and water vapour mixing ratio. Located in proximity to the high altitude Puy de Dôme station, labelled as [...] Read more.

We present a Rayleigh-Mie-Raman LIDAR system in operation at Clermont-Ferrand (France) since 2008. The system provides continuous vertical tropospheric profiles of aerosols, cirrus optical properties and water vapour mixing ratio. Located in proximity to the high altitude Puy de Dôme station, labelled as the GAW global station PUY since August 2014, it is a useful tool to describe the boundary layer dynamics and hence interpret in situ measurements. This LIDAR has been upgraded with specific hardware/software developments and laboratory calibrations in order to improve the quality of the profiles, calibrate the depolarization ratio, and increase the automation of operation. As a result, we provide a climatological water vapour profile analysis for the 2009–2013 period, showing an annual cycle with a winter minimum and a summer maximum, consistent with in-situ observations at the PUY station. An overview of a preliminary climatology of cirrus clouds frequency shows that in 2014, more than 30% of days present cirrus events. Finally, the backscatter coefficient profile observed on 27 September 2014 shows the capacity of the system to detect cirrus clouds at 13 km altitude, in presence of aerosols below the 5 km altitude. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in France)

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20 pages, 831 KiB

Open AccessReview

Some Insights on Grassland Health Assessment Based on Remote Sensing

by Dandan Xu

and Xulin Guo^*

Department of Geography and Planning, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C8, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3070-3089; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203070 - 29 Jan 2015

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 8894

Abstract

Grassland ecosystem is one of the largest ecosystems, which naturally occurs on all continents excluding Antarctica and provides both ecological and economic functions. The deterioration of natural grassland has been attracting many grassland researchers to monitor the grassland condition and dynamics for decades. [...] Read more.

Grassland ecosystem is one of the largest ecosystems, which naturally occurs on all continents excluding Antarctica and provides both ecological and economic functions. The deterioration of natural grassland has been attracting many grassland researchers to monitor the grassland condition and dynamics for decades. Remote sensing techniques, which are advanced in dealing with the scale constraints of ecological research and provide temporal information, become a powerful approach of grassland ecosystem monitoring. So far, grassland health monitoring studies have mostly focused on different areas, for example, productivity evaluation, classification, vegetation dynamics, livestock carrying capacity, grazing intensity, natural disaster detecting, fire, climate change, coverage assessment and soil erosion. However, the grassland ecosystem is a complex system which is formed by soil, vegetation, wildlife and atmosphere. Thus, it is time to consider the grassland ecosystem as an entity synthetically and establish an integrated grassland health monitoring system to combine different aspects of the complex grassland ecosystem. In this review, current grassland health monitoring methods, including rangeland health assessment, ecosystem health assessment and grassland monitoring by remote sensing from different aspects, are discussed along with the future directions of grassland health assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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17 pages, 2619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compensation for the Variable Cyclic Error in Homodyne Laser Interferometers

by Pengcheng Hu

, Jinghao Zhu, Xuanbiao Guo and Jiubin Tan^*

Harbin Institute of Technology, D-403 Science Park, 2 Yikuang Street, Harbin 150080, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3090-3106; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203090 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6671

Abstract

This paper presents a real-time method to compensate for the variable cyclic error in a homodyne laser interferometer. The parameters describing the quadrature signals of the interferometer are estimated using simple peak value detectors. The cyclic error in the homodyne laser interferometer was [...] Read more.

This paper presents a real-time method to compensate for the variable cyclic error in a homodyne laser interferometer. The parameters describing the quadrature signals of the interferometer are estimated using simple peak value detectors. The cyclic error in the homodyne laser interferometer was then corrected through simple arithmetic calculations of the quadrature signals. A field programmable gate array was utilized for the real-time compensation of the cyclic error in a homodyne laser interferometer. The simulation and experimental results indicated that the proposed method could provide a cyclic error that was fixed without compensation down to a value under 0.6 nm in a homodyne laser interferometer. The proposed method could also reduce the time-varying cyclic error to a value under 0.6 nm in a homodyne laser interferometer, in contrast to the equivalent value of 13.3 nm for a conventional elliptical fitting method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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9 pages, 1247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Visualization of Fine Needles Under Sonographic Guidance Using a MEMS Actuator

by Zhiyuan Shen¹, Yufeng Zhou^1,*

, Jianmin Miao¹ and Kien Fong Vu²

¹ School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Ave., Singapore 639798, Singapore

² Department of Gastroenterology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore 308433, Singapore

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3107-3115; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203107 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6329

Abstract

Localization of a needle tip is important for biopsy examinations in clinics. However, the needle tip is sometimes difficult to discern under the guidance of sonography due to its poor visibility. A mini actuator that radiates a low-intensity ultrasound wave was manufactured using [...] Read more.

Localization of a needle tip is important for biopsy examinations in clinics. However, the needle tip is sometimes difficult to discern under the guidance of sonography due to its poor visibility. A mini actuator that radiates a low-intensity ultrasound wave was manufactured using micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technology. Interference between the radiated and diagnostic ultrasound pulses was observed as bright lines in the B-mode ultrasound image, from which the mini actuator could be recognized with ease. Because the distance between the mini actuator and the needle tip is fixed, the needle tip can be determined despite its inconsistent appearance in the sonography. Both gel phantom and ex vivo tissue evaluation showed that the needle tip can be determined reliably utilizing the acoustic interference pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors and Transducers for Applications in Biology, Medicine and NDT)

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22 pages, 3186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aquatic Debris Detection Using Embedded Camera Sensors

by Yong Wang^1,*, Dianhong Wang^1,2, Qian Lu², Dapeng Luo¹ and Wu Fang¹

¹ Faculty of Mechanical and Electronic Information, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China

² Department of Geological Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Engineering Sciences, Wuhan 430200, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3116-3137; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203116 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6082

Abstract

Aquatic debris monitoring is of great importance to human health, aquatic habitats and water transport. In this paper, we first introduce the prototype of an aquatic sensor node equipped with an embedded camera sensor. Based on this sensing platform, we propose a fast [...] Read more.

Aquatic debris monitoring is of great importance to human health, aquatic habitats and water transport. In this paper, we first introduce the prototype of an aquatic sensor node equipped with an embedded camera sensor. Based on this sensing platform, we propose a fast and accurate debris detection algorithm. Our method is specifically designed based on compressive sensing theory to give full consideration to the unique challenges in aquatic environments, such as waves, swaying reflections, and tight energy budget. To upload debris images, we use an efficient sparse recovery algorithm in which only a few linear measurements need to be transmitted for image reconstruction. Besides, we implement the host software and test the debris detection algorithm on realistically deployed aquatic sensor nodes. The experimental results demonstrate that our approach is reliable and feasible for debris detection using camera sensors in aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 1232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Microsystem for Analysis of Diffuse Reflectance and Fluorescence Signals Applied to Early Gastrointestinal Cancer Detection

by Sara Pimenta^1,*, Elisabete M. S. Castanheira^2,†

and Graça Minas^1,†

¹ Department of Industrial Electronics, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, Guimarães 4800-058, Portugal

² Centre of Physics (CFUM), University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3138-3153; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203138 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5794

Abstract

The detection of cancer at its earliest stage is crucial in order to increase the probability of a successful treatment. Optical techniques, specifically diffuse reflectance and fluorescence, may considerably improve the ability to detect pre-cancerous lesions. These techniques have high sensitivity to some [...] Read more.

The detection of cancer at its earliest stage is crucial in order to increase the probability of a successful treatment. Optical techniques, specifically diffuse reflectance and fluorescence, may considerably improve the ability to detect pre-cancerous lesions. These techniques have high sensitivity to some biomarkers present on the tissues, providing morphological and biochemical information of normal and diseased tissue. The development of a chip sized spectroscopy microsystem, based on these techniques, will greatly improve the early diagnosis of gastrointestinal cancers. The main innovation is the detection of the spectroscopic signals using only few, but representative, spectral bands allowing for miniaturization. This paper presents the mathematical models, its validation and analysis for retrieving data of the measured spectroscopic signals. These models were applied to a set of phantoms clearly representative of gastrointestinal tissues, leading to a more accurate diagnostic by a pathologist. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the models can use the reconstructed spectroscopic signals based only on its extraction on those specific spectral bands. As a result, the viability of the spectroscopy microsystem implementation was proved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Optical Biosensors)

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18 pages, 1211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Initial Alignment and Self-Calibration of Rotary Strapdown Inertial Navigation Systems

by Wei Gao^1,2, Ya Zhang^1,3,* and Jianguo Wang³

¹ College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China

² School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China

³ Department of Earth and Space and Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3154-3171; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203154 - 30 Jan 2015

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 7822

Abstract

The errors of inertial sensors affect the navigation accuracy of the strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) and are accumulated over time in nature. In order to continuously maintain the high navigation accuracy of vehicles for a long time period, an initial alignment and [...] Read more.

The errors of inertial sensors affect the navigation accuracy of the strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) and are accumulated over time in nature. In order to continuously maintain the high navigation accuracy of vehicles for a long time period, an initial alignment and self-calibration is necessary after the SINS starts. Additionally, the observability analysis is one of the key techniques during the initial alignment and self-calibration process. For marine systems, the observability of inertial sensor errors is extremely low, as their motion states are always slow. Therefore, studying the rotating SINS is urgent. Since traditional analysis methods have their limitations, the global observation analysis method was used in this paper. On the basis of this method, the relationship between the observability and the kinestate of the rotating SINS has been established. After the discussion about the factors that affect the observability in detail, the design principle of the initial alignment and self-calibration rotating scheme, which is appropriate for marine systems, id proposed. With the proposed principle, a novel initial alignment and self-calibration method, named the eight-position rotating scheme, is designed. Simulations and experiments are carried out to verify its performance. The results have shown that compared with other rotating schemes and the static state, the estimated accuracy of the eight-position scheme rotating about axes x and y was the best, and the position error was significantly reduced with this new rotating scheme. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed design principle and the rotating scheme were verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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32 pages, 4321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Roof Segmentation from Aerial Images Using a Lineand Region-Based Watershed Segmentation Technique

by Youssef El Merabet^1,2,*, Cyril Meurie³, Yassine Ruichek¹, Abderrahmane Sbihi⁴ and Raja Touahni²

¹ IRTES-SeT, University of Technology of Belfort-Montbeliard, 13 rue Ernest-Thierry Mieg, 90010 Belfort cedex, France

² LASTID Laboratory, Département de Physique, Faculté des Sciences, Université Ibn Tofail, B.P 133, 14000 Kénitra, Maroc

³ Univ Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, IFSTTAR, LEOST, F59650 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France

⁴ National School of Applied Sciences of Tangier (ENSAT), Abdemalek Essaadi University, B.P. 1818, 90000 Tangier, Maroc

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3172-3203; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203172 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 8402

Abstract

In this paper, we present a novel strategy for roof segmentation from aerial images (orthophotoplans) based on the cooperation of edge- and region-based segmentation methods. The proposed strategy is composed of three major steps. The first one, called the pre-processing step, consists of [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present a novel strategy for roof segmentation from aerial images (orthophotoplans) based on the cooperation of edge- and region-based segmentation methods. The proposed strategy is composed of three major steps. The first one, called the pre-processing step, consists of simplifying the acquired image with an appropriate couple of invariant and gradient, optimized for the application, in order to limit illumination changes (shadows, brightness, etc.) affecting the images. The second step is composed of two main parallel treatments: on the one hand, the simplified image is segmented by watershed regions. Even if the first segmentation of this step provides good results in general, the image is often over-segmented. To alleviate this problem, an efficient region merging strategy adapted to the orthophotoplan particularities, with a 2D modeling of roof ridges technique, is applied. On the other hand, the simplified image is segmented by watershed lines. The third step consists of integrating both watershed segmentation strategies into a single cooperative segmentation scheme in order to achieve satisfactory segmentation results. Tests have been performed on orthophotoplans containing 100 roofs with varying complexity, and the results are evaluated with the VINETcriterion using ground-truth image segmentation. A comparison with five popular segmentation techniques of the literature demonstrates the effectiveness and the reliability of the proposed approach. Indeed, we obtain a good segmentation rate of 96% with the proposed method compared to 87.5% with statistical region merging (SRM), 84% with mean shift, 82% with color structure code (CSC), 80% with efficient graph-based segmentation algorithm (EGBIS) and 71% with JSEG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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20 pages, 7057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency Split Elimination Method for a Solid-State Vibratory Angular Rate Gyro with an Imperfect Axisymmetric-Shell Resonator

by Zhen Lin^*, Mengyin Fu, Zhihong Deng

, Ning Liu and Hong Liu

School of Automation, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3204-3223; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203204 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5894

Abstract

The resonator of a solid-state vibratory gyro is responsible for sensing angular motion. Frequency splitting of an axisymmetric-shell resonator is a common problem caused by manufacturing defects. The defect causes a frequency difference between two working modes which consist of two nodes and [...] Read more.

The resonator of a solid-state vibratory gyro is responsible for sensing angular motion. Frequency splitting of an axisymmetric-shell resonator is a common problem caused by manufacturing defects. The defect causes a frequency difference between two working modes which consist of two nodes and two antinodes. The difference leads to the loss of gyroscopic effect, and thus the resonator cannot sense angular motion. In this paper, the resonator based on an axisymmetric multi-curved surface shell structure is investigated and an approach to eliminate frequency splits is proposed. Since axisymmetric multi-curved surface shell resonators are too complex to be modeled, this paper proposes a simplified model by focusing on a common property of the axisymmetric shell. The resonator with stochastic imperfections is made equivalent to a perfect shell with an imperfect mass point. Rayleigh’s energy method is used in the theoretical analysis. Finite element modeling is used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the elimination approach. In real cases, a resonator’s frequency split is eliminated by the proposed approach. In this paper, errors in the theoretical analysis are discussed and steps to be taken when the deviation between assumptions and the real situation is large are figured out. The resonator has good performance after processing. The elimination approach can be applied to any kind of solid-state vibratory gyro resonators with an axisymmetric shell structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 1679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Pressure Sensing System for Heart Rate Monitoring with Polymer-Based Pressure Sensors and An Anti-Interference Post Processing Circuit

by Yi Shu^†, Cheng Li^†, Zhe Wang, Wentian Mi, Yuxing Li and Tian-Ling Ren^*

¹ Institute of Microelectronics and Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and Technology (TNList), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3224-3235; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203224 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 10832

Abstract

Heart rate measurement is a basic and important issue for either medical diagnosis or daily health monitoring. In this work great efforts have been focused on realizing a portable, comfortable and low cost solution for long-term domestic heart rate monitoring. A tiny but [...] Read more.

Heart rate measurement is a basic and important issue for either medical diagnosis or daily health monitoring. In this work great efforts have been focused on realizing a portable, comfortable and low cost solution for long-term domestic heart rate monitoring. A tiny but efficient measurement system composed of a polymer-based flexible pressure sensor and an analog anti-interference readout circuit is proposed; manufactured and tested. The proposed polymer-based pressure sensor has a linear response and high sensitivity of 13.4 kPa⁻¹. With the circuit’s outstanding capability in removing interference caused by body movement and the highly sensitive flexible sensor device, comfortable long-term heart rate monitoring becomes more realistic. Comparative tests prove that the proposed system has equivalent capability (accuracy: <3%) in heart rate measurement to the commercial product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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26 pages, 2627 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wireless Integrated Biosensors for Point-of-Care Diagnostic Applications

by Ebrahim Ghafar-Zadeh

Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON M3J1P3, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3236-3261; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203236 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 93 | Viewed by 20148

Abstract

Recent advances in integrated biosensors, wireless communication and power harvesting techniques are enticing researchers into spawning a new breed of point-of-care (POC) diagnostic devices that have attracted significant interest from industry. Among these, it is the ones equipped with wireless capabilities that drew [...] Read more.

Recent advances in integrated biosensors, wireless communication and power harvesting techniques are enticing researchers into spawning a new breed of point-of-care (POC) diagnostic devices that have attracted significant interest from industry. Among these, it is the ones equipped with wireless capabilities that drew our attention in this review paper. Indeed, wireless POC devices offer a great advantage, that of the possibility of exerting continuous monitoring of biologically relevant parameters, metabolites and other bio-molecules, relevant to the management of various morbid diseases such as diabetes, brain cancer, ischemia, and Alzheimer’s. In this review paper, we examine three major categories of miniaturized integrated devices, namely; the implantable Wireless Bio-Sensors (WBSs), the wearable WBSs and the handheld WBSs. In practice, despite the aforesaid progress made in developing wireless platforms, early detection of health imbalances remains a grand challenge from both the technological and the medical points of view. This paper addresses such challenges and reports the state-of-the-art in this interdisciplinary field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniaturized Wireless Biosensors)

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20 pages, 1276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Soil Moisture Content from the Spectral Reflectance of Bare Soils in the 0.4–2.5 µm Domain

by Sophie Fabre^*, Xavier Briottet

and Audrey Lesaignoux

Onera, BP74025 2 Avenue Edouard Belin FR-31055 Toulouse Cedex 4, France

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3262-3281; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203262 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 100 | Viewed by 11536

Abstract

This work aims to compare the performance of new methods to estimate the Soil Moisture Content (SMC) of bare soils from their spectral signatures in the reflective domain (0.4–2.5 µm) in comparison with widely used spectral indices like Normalized Soil Moisture Index (NSMI) [...] Read more.

This work aims to compare the performance of new methods to estimate the Soil Moisture Content (SMC) of bare soils from their spectral signatures in the reflective domain (0.4–2.5 µm) in comparison with widely used spectral indices like Normalized Soil Moisture Index (NSMI) and Water Index SOIL (WISOIL). Indeed, these reference spectral indices use wavelengths located in the water vapour absorption bands and their performance are thus very sensitive to the quality of the atmospheric compensation. To reduce these limitations, two new spectral indices are proposed which wavelengths are defined using the determination matrix tool by taking into account the atmospheric transmission: Normalized Index of Nswir domain for Smc estimatiOn from Linear correlation (NINSOL) and Normalized Index of Nswir domain for Smc estimatiOn from Non linear correlation (NINSON). These spectral indices are completed by two new methods based on the global shape of the soil spectral signatures. These methods are the Inverse Soil semi-Empirical Reflectance model (ISER), using the inversion of an existing empirical soil model simulating the soil spectral reflectance according to soil moisture content for a given soil class, and the convex envelope model, linking the area between the envelope and the spectral signature to the SMC. All these methods are compared using a reference database built with 32 soil samples and composed of 190 spectral signatures with five or six soil moisture contents. Half of the database is used for the calibration stage and the remaining to evaluate the performance of the SMC estimation methods. The results show that the four new methods lead to similar or better performance than the one obtained by the reference indices. The RMSE is ranging from 3.8% to 6.2% and the coefficient of determination R² varies between 0.74 and 0.91 with the best performance obtained with the ISER model. In a second step, simulated spectral radiances at the sensor level are used to analyse the sensitivity of these methods to the sensor spectral resolution and the water vapour content knowledge. The spectral signatures of the database are then used to simulate the signal at the top of atmosphere with a radiative transfer model and to compute the integrated incident signal representing the spectral radiance measurements of the HYMAP airborne hyperspectral instrument. The sensor radiances are then corrected from the atmosphere by an atmospheric compensation tool to retrieve the surface reflectances. The SMC estimation methods are then applied on the retrieve spectral reflectances. The adaptation of the spectral index wavelengths to the HyMap sensor spectral bands and the application of the convex envelope and ISER models to boarder spectral bands lead to an error on the SMC estimation. The best performance is then obtained with the ISER model (RMSE of 2.9% and R² of 0.96) while the four other methods lead to quite similar RMSE (from 6.4% to 7.8%) and R² (between 0.79 and 0.83) values. In the atmosphere compensation processing, an error on the water vapour content is introduced. The most robust methods to water vapour content variations are WISOIL, NINSON, NINSOL and ISER model. The convex envelope model and NSMI index require an accurate estimation of the water vapour content in the atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in France)

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17 pages, 1599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Data Filtering of Inertial Sensors with Variable Bandwidth

by Mushfiqul Alam^* and Jan Rohac

Department of Measurement, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Technicka 2, Prague 16627, Czech Republic

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3282-3298; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203282 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7462

Abstract

MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system)-based inertial sensors, i.e., accelerometers and angular rate sensors, are commonly used as a cost-effective solution for the purposes of navigation in a broad spectrum of terrestrial and aerospace applications. These tri-axial inertial sensors form an inertial measurement unit (IMU), [...] Read more.

MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system)-based inertial sensors, i.e., accelerometers and angular rate sensors, are commonly used as a cost-effective solution for the purposes of navigation in a broad spectrum of terrestrial and aerospace applications. These tri-axial inertial sensors form an inertial measurement unit (IMU), which is a core unit of navigation systems. Even if MEMS sensors have an advantage in their size, cost, weight and power consumption, they suffer from bias instability, noisy output and insufficient resolution. Furthermore, the sensor’s behavior can be significantly affected by strong vibration when it operates in harsh environments. All of these constitute conditions require treatment through data processing. As long as the navigation solution is primarily based on using only inertial data, this paper proposes a novel concept in adaptive data pre-processing by using a variable bandwidth filtering. This approach utilizes sinusoidal estimation to continuously adapt the filtering bandwidth of the accelerometer’s data in order to reduce the effects of vibration and sensor noise before attitude estimation is processed. Low frequency vibration generally limits the conditions under which the accelerometers can be used to aid the attitude estimation process, which is primarily based on angular rate data and, thus, decreases its accuracy. In contrast, the proposed pre-processing technique enables using accelerometers as an aiding source by effective data smoothing, even when they are affected by low frequency vibration. Verification of the proposed concept is performed on simulation and real-flight data obtained on an ultra-light aircraft. The results of both types of experiments confirm the suitability of the concept for inertial data pre-processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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35 pages, 930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CENTERA: A Centralized Trust-Based Efficient Routing Protocol with Authentication for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Ayman Tajeddine^1,*, Ayman Kayssi¹, Ali Chehab¹, Imad Elhajj¹ and Wassim Itani²

¹ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, American University of Beirut, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon

² Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Beirut Arab University, Beirut 1107 2809, Lebanon

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3299-3333; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203299 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6155

Abstract

In this paper, we present CENTERA, a CENtralized Trust-based Efficient Routing protocol with an appropriate authentication scheme for wireless sensor networks (WSN). CENTERA utilizes the more powerful base station (BS) to gather minimal neighbor trust information from nodes and calculate the best routes [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present CENTERA, a CENtralized Trust-based Efficient Routing protocol with an appropriate authentication scheme for wireless sensor networks (WSN). CENTERA utilizes the more powerful base station (BS) to gather minimal neighbor trust information from nodes and calculate the best routes after isolating different types of “bad” nodes. By periodically accumulating these simple local observations and approximating the nodes’ battery lives, the BS draws a global view of the network, calculates three quality metrics—maliciousness, cooperation, and compatibility—and evaluates the Data Trust and Forwarding Trust values of each node. Based on these metrics, the BS isolates “bad”, “misbehaving” or malicious nodes for a certain period, and put some nodes on probation. CENTERA increases the node’s bad/probation level with repeated “bad” behavior, and decreases it otherwise. Then it uses a very efficient method to distribute the routing information to “good” nodes. Based on its target environment, and if required, CENTERA uses an authentication scheme suitable for severely constrained nodes, ranging from the symmetric RC5 for safe environments under close administration, to pairing-based cryptography (PBC) for hostile environments with a strong attacker model. We simulate CENTERA using TOSSIM and verify its correctness and show some energy calculations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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17 pages, 3902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mini-UAV Based Sensory System for Measuring Environmental Variables in Greenhouses

by Juan Jesús Roldán¹

, Guillaume Joossen², David Sanz¹, Jaime Del Cerro¹

and Antonio Barrientos^1,*

¹ Centre for Automation and Robotics (UPM-CSIC), José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain

² ENSTA ParisTech, Boulevard des Maréchaux, 828, 91120 Palaiseau, France

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3334-3350; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203334 - 2 Feb 2015

Cited by 149 | Viewed by 18376

Abstract

This paper describes the design, construction and validation of a mobile sensory platform for greenhouse monitoring. The complete system consists of a sensory system on board a small quadrotor (i.e., a four rotor mini-UAV). The goals of this system include taking [...] Read more.

This paper describes the design, construction and validation of a mobile sensory platform for greenhouse monitoring. The complete system consists of a sensory system on board a small quadrotor (i.e., a four rotor mini-UAV). The goals of this system include taking measures of temperature, humidity, luminosity and CO₂ concentration and plotting maps of these variables. These features could potentially allow for climate control, crop monitoring or failure detection (e.g., a break in a plastic cover). The sensors have been selected by considering the climate and plant growth models and the requirements for their integration onboard the quadrotor. The sensors layout and placement have been determined through a study of quadrotor aerodynamics and the influence of the airflows from its rotors. All components of the system have been developed, integrated and tested through a set of field experiments in a real greenhouse. The primary contributions of this paper are the validation of the quadrotor as a platform for measuring environmental variables and the determination of the optimal location of sensors on a quadrotor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV Sensors for Environmental Monitoring)

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11 pages, 1759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of a Multichannel 3D Thermopile for Chip Calorimeter Applications

by Tho Phuoc Huynh^1,2, Yilei Zhang^1,* and Cohen Yehuda²

¹ School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue 639798, Singapore

² Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences and Engineering, Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive 637551, Singapore

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3351-3361; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203351 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6528

Abstract

Thermal sensors based on thermopiles are some of the most robust and popular temperature sensing technologies across industries and research disciplines. A chip calorimeter with a 3D thermopile layout with a large sensing area and multichannel capacity has been developed, which is highly [...] Read more.

Thermal sensors based on thermopiles are some of the most robust and popular temperature sensing technologies across industries and research disciplines. A chip calorimeter with a 3D thermopile layout with a large sensing area and multichannel capacity has been developed, which is highly desired for many applications requiring large reaction chambers or high throughputs, such as biofilm research, drug screening, etc. The performance of the device, including temperature sensitivity and heat power sensitivity, was evaluated. The capability to split the chip calorimeter to multiple channels was also demonstrated, which makes the chip calorimeter very flexible and powerful in many applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 2773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Noise Removal for Line-Scanning Hyperspectral Devices Using a Minimum Noise Fraction-Based Approach

by Asgeir Bjorgan^* and Lise Lyngsnes Randeberg

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3362-3378; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203362 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6972

Abstract

Processing line-by-line and in real-time can be convenient for some applications of line-scanning hyperspectral imaging technology. Some types of processing, like inverse modeling and spectral analysis, can be sensitive to noise. The MNF (minimum noise fraction) transform provides suitable denoising performance, but requires [...] Read more.

Processing line-by-line and in real-time can be convenient for some applications of line-scanning hyperspectral imaging technology. Some types of processing, like inverse modeling and spectral analysis, can be sensitive to noise. The MNF (minimum noise fraction) transform provides suitable denoising performance, but requires full image availability for the estimation of image and noise statistics. In this work, a modified algorithm is proposed. Incrementally-updated statistics enables the algorithm to denoise the image line-by-line. The denoising performance has been compared to conventional MNF and found to be equal. With a satisfying denoising performance and real-time implementation, the developed algorithm can denoise line-scanned hyperspectral images in real-time. The elimination of waiting time before denoised data are available is an important step towards real-time visualization of processed hyperspectral data. The source code can be found at http://www.github.com/ntnu-bioopt/mnf. This includes an implementation of conventional MNF denoising. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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30 pages, 2927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New mHealth Communication Framework for Use in Wearable WBANs and Mobile Technologies

by Sana Tmar-Ben Hamida^1,*, Elyes Ben Hamida² and Beena Ahmed¹

¹ Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Texas A&M University, Doha, PO Box 23874, Qatar

² Qatar Mobility Innovations Center (QMIC), Qatar Science and Technology Park, Doha, PO Box 210531, Qatar

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3379-3408; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203379 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 10885

Abstract

Driven by the development of biomedical sensors and the availability of high mobile bandwidth, mobile health (mHealth) systems are now offering a wider range of new services. This revolution makes the idea of in-home health monitoring practical and provides the opportunity for assessment [...] Read more.

Driven by the development of biomedical sensors and the availability of high mobile bandwidth, mobile health (mHealth) systems are now offering a wider range of new services. This revolution makes the idea of in-home health monitoring practical and provides the opportunity for assessment in “real-world” environments producing more ecologically valid data. In the field of insomnia diagnosis, for example, it is now possible to offer patients wearable sleep monitoring systems which can be used in the comfort of their homes over long periods of time. The recorded data collected from body sensors can be sent to a remote clinical back-end system for analysis and assessment. Most of the research on sleep reported in the literature mainly looks into how to automate the analysis of the sleep data and does not address the problem of the efficient encoding and secure transmissions of the collected health data. This article reviews the key enabling communication technologies and research challenges for the design of efficient mHealth systems. An end-to-end mHealth system architecture enabling the remote assessment and monitoring of patient’s sleep disorders is then proposed and described as a case study. Finally, various mHealth data serialization formats and machine-to-machine (M2M) communication protocols are evaluated and compared under realistic operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Network for Pervasive Medical Care)

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17 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging by a Direct Inverse Asymmetric PI Hysteresis Model

by Dong Wang^1,2, Peng Yu¹, Feifei Wang^1,2, Ho-Yin Chan³, Lei Zhou¹, Zaili Dong¹, Lianqing Liu^1,* and Wen Jung Li^1,3,*

¹ State Key Laboratory of Robotics, Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

³ Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3409-3425; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203409 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7277

Abstract

A modified Prandtl–Ishlinskii (PI) model, referred to as a direct inverse asymmetric PI (DIAPI) model in this paper, was implemented to reduce the displacement error between a predicted model and the actual trajectory of a piezoelectric actuator which is commonly found in AFM [...] Read more.

A modified Prandtl–Ishlinskii (PI) model, referred to as a direct inverse asymmetric PI (DIAPI) model in this paper, was implemented to reduce the displacement error between a predicted model and the actual trajectory of a piezoelectric actuator which is commonly found in AFM systems. Due to the nonlinearity of the piezoelectric actuator, the standard symmetric PI model cannot precisely describe the asymmetric motion of the actuator. In order to improve the accuracy of AFM scans, two series of slope parameters were introduced in the PI model to describe both the voltage-increase-loop (trace) and voltage-decrease-loop (retrace). A feedforward controller based on the DIAPI model was implemented to compensate hysteresis. Performance of the DIAPI model and the feedforward controller were validated by scanning micro-lenses and standard silicon grating using a custom-built AFM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Materials for Switchable Sensors)

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9 pages, 744 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Phospholipid Fatty Acids as Physiological Indicators of Paracoccus denitrificans Encapsulated in Silica Sol-Gel Hydrogels

by Josef Trögl^1,*

, Ivana Jirková¹, Pavel Kuráň¹, Elmira Akhmetshina², Taťjána Brovdyová¹, Alexander Sirotkin² and Tatiana Kirilina²

¹ Faculty of Environment, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, KrálovaVýšina 3132/7, Ústí nad Labem 400 96, Czech Republic

² Faculty of Food Technology, Kazan National Research Technological University, Karl-Marx-Str. 8, Kazan 420 015, Russia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3426-3434; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203426 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6461

Abstract

The phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) content was determined in samples of Paracoccus denitrificans encapsulated in silica hydrogel films prepared from prepolymerized tetramethoxysilane (TMOS). Immediately after encapsulation the total PLFA concentration was linearly proportional to the optical density (600 nm) of the input microbial [...] Read more.

The phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) content was determined in samples of Paracoccus denitrificans encapsulated in silica hydrogel films prepared from prepolymerized tetramethoxysilane (TMOS). Immediately after encapsulation the total PLFA concentration was linearly proportional to the optical density (600 nm) of the input microbial suspension (R² = 0.99). After 7 days this relationship remained linear, but with significantly decreased slope, indicating a higher extinction of bacteria in suspensions of input concentration 10⁸ cells/mL and higher. trans-Fatty acids, indicators of cytoplasmatic membrane disturbances, were below the detection limit. The cy/pre ratio (i.e., ratio of cyclopropylated fatty acids (cy17:0 + cy19:0) to their metabolic precursors (16:1ω7 + 18:1ω7)), an indicator of the transition of the culture to a stationary growth-phase, decreased depending on co-immobilization of nutrients in the order phosphate buffer > mineral medium > Luria Broth rich medium. The ratio, too, was logarithmically proportional to cell concentration. These results confirm the applicability of total PLFA as an indicator for the determination of living biomass and cy/pre ratio for determination of nutrient limitation of microorganisms encapsulated in sol-gel matrices. This may be of interest for monitoring of sol-gel encapsulated bacteria proposed as optical recognition elements in biosensor construction, as well as other biotechnological applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sol-Gel Based Sensors and Devices)

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18 pages, 1403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amperometric Enzyme Sensor to Check the Total Antioxidant Capacity of Several Mixed Berries. Comparison with Two Other Spectrophotometric and Fluorimetric Methods

by Mauro Tomassetti^*

, Maruschka Serone, Riccardo Angeloni^*, Luigi Campanella and Elisa Mazzone

Department of Chemistry, "Sapienza" University of Rome, p.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3435-3452; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203435 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6674

Abstract

The aim of this research was to test the correctness of response of a superoxide dismutase amperometric biosensor used for the purpose of measuring and ranking the total antioxidant capacity of several systematically analysed mixed berries. Several methods are described in the literature [...] Read more.

The aim of this research was to test the correctness of response of a superoxide dismutase amperometric biosensor used for the purpose of measuring and ranking the total antioxidant capacity of several systematically analysed mixed berries. Several methods are described in the literature for determining antioxidant capacity, each culminating in the construction of an antioxidant capacity scale and each using its own unit of measurement. It was therefore endeavoured to correlate and compare the results obtained using the present amperometric biosensor method with those resulting from two other different methods for determining the total antioxidant capacity selected from among those more frequently cited in the literature. The purpose was to establish a methodological approach consisting in the simultaneous application of different methods that it would be possible to use to obtain an accurate estimation of the total antioxidant capacity of different mixed berries and the food products containing them. Testing was therefore extended to also cover jams, yoghurts and juices containing mixed berries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Amperometric Biosensors)

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18 pages, 17637 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sand Dune Ridge Alignment Effects on Surface BRF over the Libya-4 CEOS Calibration Site

by Yves M. Govaerts

Rayference, 1030 Brussels, Belgium

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3453-3470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203453 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6850

Abstract

The Libya-4 desert area, located in the Great Sand Sea, is one of the most important bright desert CEOS pseudo-invariant calibration sites by its size and radiometric stability. This site is intensively used for radiometer drift monitoring, sensor intercalibration and as an absolute [...] Read more.

The Libya-4 desert area, located in the Great Sand Sea, is one of the most important bright desert CEOS pseudo-invariant calibration sites by its size and radiometric stability. This site is intensively used for radiometer drift monitoring, sensor intercalibration and as an absolute calibration reference based on simulated radiances traceable to the SI standard. The Libya-4 morphology is composed of oriented sand dunes shaped by dominant winds. The effects of sand dune spatial organization on the surface bidirectional reflectance factor is analyzed in this paper using Raytran, a 3D radiative transfer model. The topography is characterized with the 30 m resolution ASTER digital elevation model. Four different regions-of-interest sizes, ranging from 10 km up to 100 km, are analyzed. Results show that sand dunes generate more backscattering than forward scattering at the surface. The mean surface reflectance averaged over different viewing and illumination angles is pretty much independent of the size of the selected area, though the standard deviation differs. Sun azimuth position has an effect on the surface reflectance field, which is more pronounced for high Sun zenith angles. Such 3D azimuthal effects should be taken into account to decrease the simulated radiance uncertainty over Libya-4 below 3% for wavelengths larger than 600 nm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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20 pages, 4739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of the Excitation Efficiency of a Torsional Wave PPM EMAT Array for Pipe Inspection by Optimizing the Element Number of the Array Based on 3-D FEM

by Yugang Wang, Xinjun Wu^*, Pengfei Sun and Jian Li

School of Mechanical Science & Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3471-3490; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203471 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7494

Abstract

Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) can generate non-dispersive T(0,1) mode guided waves in a metallic pipe for nondestructive testing (NDT) by using a periodic permanent magnet (PPM) EMAT circular array. In order to enhance the excitation efficiency of the sensor, the effects of varying [...] Read more.

Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) can generate non-dispersive T(0,1) mode guided waves in a metallic pipe for nondestructive testing (NDT) by using a periodic permanent magnet (PPM) EMAT circular array. In order to enhance the excitation efficiency of the sensor, the effects of varying the number of elements of the array on the excitation efficiency is studied in this paper. The transduction process of the PPM EMAT array is studied based on 3-D finite element method (FEM). The passing signal amplitude of the torsional wave is obtained to represent the excitation efficiency of the sensor. Models with different numbers of elements are established and the results are compared to obtain an optimal element number. The simulation result is verified by experiments. It is shown that after optimization, the amplitudes of both the passing signal and defect signal with the optimal element number are increased by 29%, which verifies the feasibility of this optimal method. The essence of the optimization is to find the best match between the static magnetic field and the eddy current field in a limited circumferential space to obtain the maximum circumferential Lorentz force. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 9740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Modeling of Building Indoor Spaces and Closed Doors from Imagery and Point Clouds

by Lucía Díaz-Vilariño^1,*

, Kourosh Khoshelham^2,3, Joaquín Martínez-Sánchez¹ and Pedro Arias¹

¹ Applied Geotechnologies Research Group, University of Vigo. Rúa Maxwell s/n, Campus Lagoas-Marcosende, Vigo 36310, Spain

² Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, Enschede 7514 AE, The Netherlands

³ Department of Infrastructure Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3010, Australia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3491-3512; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203491 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 10958

Abstract

3D models of indoor environments are increasingly gaining importance due to the wide range of applications to which they can be subjected: from redesign and visualization to monitoring and simulation. These models usually exist only for newly constructed buildings; therefore, the development of [...] Read more.

3D models of indoor environments are increasingly gaining importance due to the wide range of applications to which they can be subjected: from redesign and visualization to monitoring and simulation. These models usually exist only for newly constructed buildings; therefore, the development of automatic approaches for reconstructing 3D indoors from imagery and/or point clouds can make the process easier, faster and cheaper. Among the constructive elements defining a building interior, doors are very common elements and their detection can be very useful either for knowing the environment structure, to perform an efficient navigation or to plan appropriate evacuation routes. The fact that doors are topologically connected to walls by being coplanar, together with the unavoidable presence of clutter and occlusions indoors, increases the inherent complexity of the automation of the recognition process. In this work, we present a pipeline of techniques used for the reconstruction and interpretation of building interiors based on point clouds and images. The methodology analyses the visibility problem of indoor environments and goes in depth with door candidate detection. The presented approach is tested in real data sets showing its potential with a high door detection rate and applicability for robust and efficient envelope reconstruction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Indoor Mapping and Navigation)

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27 pages, 10967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plasmonic Structure Integrated Single-Photon Detector Configurations to Improve Absorptance and Polarization Contrast

by Mária Csete^1,*, Gábor Szekeres¹, András Szenes¹, Anikó Szalai^1,2 and Gábor Szabó¹

¹ Department of Optics and Quantum Electronics, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 9 6720, Hungary

² MTA-SZTE Photoacustic Research Group, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 9 6720, Hungary

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3513-3539; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203513 - 3 Feb 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6720

Abstract

Configurations capable of maximizing both the absorption component of system detection efficiency and the achievable polarization contrast were determined for 1550 nm polarized light illumination of different plasmonic structure integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) consisting of p = 264 nm and P [...] Read more.

Configurations capable of maximizing both the absorption component of system detection efficiency and the achievable polarization contrast were determined for 1550 nm polarized light illumination of different plasmonic structure integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) consisting of p = 264 nm and P = 792 nm periodic niobium nitride (NbN) patterns on silica substrate. Global effective NbN absorptance maxima appear in case of p/s-polarized light illumination in S/P-orientation (γ = 90°/0° azimuthal angle) and the highest polarization contrast is attained in S-orientation of all devices. Common nanophotonical origin of absorptance enhancement is collective resonance on nanocavity gratings with different profiles, which is promoted by coupling between localized modes in quarter-wavelength metal-insulator-metal nanocavities and laterally synchronized Brewster-Zenneck-type surface waves in integrated SNSPDs possessing a three-quarter-wavelength-scaled periodicity. The spectral sensitivity and dispersion characteristics reveal that device design specific optimal configurations exist. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers in Infrared Photodetection)

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25 pages, 1357 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks for Measurement of Electric Fields under HVDC Transmission Lines

by Yong Cui^1,*, Qiusheng Wang¹, Haiwen Yuan¹, Xiao Song¹, Xuemin Hu¹ and Luxing Zhao²

¹ School of Automation Science and Electrical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

² High Voltage Department, China Electrical Power Research Institute, Beijing 100192, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3540-3564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203540 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6929

Abstract

In the wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for electric field measurement system under the High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission lines, it is necessary to obtain the electric field distribution with multiple sensors. The location information of each sensor is essential to the correct analysis [...] Read more.

In the wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for electric field measurement system under the High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission lines, it is necessary to obtain the electric field distribution with multiple sensors. The location information of each sensor is essential to the correct analysis of measurement results. Compared with the existing approach which gathers the location information by manually labelling sensors during deployment, the automatic localization can reduce the workload and improve the measurement efficiency. A novel and practical range-free localization algorithm for the localization of one-dimensional linear topology wireless networks in the electric field measurement system is presented. The algorithm utilizes unknown nodes’ neighbor lists based on the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) values to determine the relative locations of nodes. The algorithm is able to handle the exceptional situation of the output permutation which can effectively improve the accuracy of localization. The performance of this algorithm under real circumstances has been evaluated through several experiments with different numbers of nodes and different node deployments in the China State Grid HVDC test base. Results show that the proposed algorithm achieves an accuracy of over 96% under different conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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10 pages, 928 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Amplification of the Signal Intensity of Fluorescence-Based Fiber-Optic Biosensors Using a Fabry-Perot Resonator Structure

by Meng-Chang Hsieh^1,2, Yi-Hsin Chiu², Sheng-Fu Lin³, Jenq-Yang Chang³, Chia-Ou Chang¹ and Huihua Kenny Chiang^2,*

¹ Institute of Applied Mechanics, National Taiwan University, 1 Sec.4 Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan

² Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, No.155, Sec.2 Linong Street, Taipei 11221, Taiwan

³ Department of Optics and Photonics, National Central University, Jhongli 32001, Taiwan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3565-3574; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203565 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7709

Abstract

Fluorescent biosensors have been widely used in biomedical applications. To amplify the intensity of fluorescence signals, this study developed a novel structure for an evanescent wave fiber-optic biosensor by using a Fabry-Perot resonator structure. An excitation light was coupled into the optical fiber [...] Read more.

Fluorescent biosensors have been widely used in biomedical applications. To amplify the intensity of fluorescence signals, this study developed a novel structure for an evanescent wave fiber-optic biosensor by using a Fabry-Perot resonator structure. An excitation light was coupled into the optical fiber through a laser-drilled hole on the proximal end of the resonator. After entering the resonator, the excitation light was reflected back and forth inside the resonator, thereby amplifying the intensity of the light in the fiber. Subsequently, the light was used to excite the fluorescent molecules in the reactive region of the sensor. The experimental results showed that the biosensor signal was amplified eight-fold when the resonator reflector was formed using a 92% reflective coating. Furthermore, in a simulation, the biosensor signal could be amplified 20-fold by using a 99% reflector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Optical Biosensors)

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18 pages, 670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simultaneously Calibration Approach for Installation and Attitude Errors of an INS/GPS/LDS Target Tracker

by Jianhua Cheng^1,*, Daidai Chen^1,2, Xiangyu Sun¹ and Tongda Wang¹

¹ Marine Navigation Research Institute, College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China

² Department of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science, School of Science, Aalto University, Espoo 02150, Finland

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3575-3592; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203575 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5637

Abstract

To obtain the absolute position of a target is one of the basic topics for non-cooperated target tracking problems. In this paper, we present a simultaneously calibration method for an Inertial navigation system (INS)/Global position system (GPS)/Laser distance scanner (LDS) integrated system based [...] Read more.

To obtain the absolute position of a target is one of the basic topics for non-cooperated target tracking problems. In this paper, we present a simultaneously calibration method for an Inertial navigation system (INS)/Global position system (GPS)/Laser distance scanner (LDS) integrated system based target positioning approach. The INS/GPS integrated system provides the attitude and position of observer, and LDS offers the distance between the observer and the target. The two most significant errors are taken into jointly consideration and analyzed: (1) the attitude measure error of INS/GPS; (2) the installation error between INS/GPS and LDS subsystems. Consequently, a INS/GPS/LDS based target positioning approach considering these two errors is proposed. In order to improve the performance of this approach, a novel calibration method is designed to simultaneously estimate and compensate these two main errors. Finally, simulations are conducted to access the performance of the proposed target positioning approach and the designed simultaneously calibration method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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17 pages, 16902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structure-from-Motion Approach for Characterization of Bioerosion Patterns Using UAV Imagery

by Sibila A. Genchi^1,2,*, Alejandro J. Vitale^1,3,*, Gerardo M. E. Perillo^1,4 and Claudio A. Delrieux³

¹ Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, CONICET, CC 804, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina

² Departamento de Geografía y Turismo, Universidad Nacional del Sur, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina

³ Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica y de Computadoras, Universidad Nacional del Sur, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina

⁴ Departamento de Geología, Universidad Nacional del Sur, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3593-3609; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203593 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7192

Abstract

The aim of this work is to evaluate the applicability of the 3D model obtained through Structure-from-Motion (SFM) from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery, in order to characterize bioerosion patterns (i.e., cavities for roosting and nesting) caused by burrowing parrots on [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to evaluate the applicability of the 3D model obtained through Structure-from-Motion (SFM) from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery, in order to characterize bioerosion patterns (i.e., cavities for roosting and nesting) caused by burrowing parrots on a cliff in Bahía Blanca, Argentina. The combined use of SFM-UAV technology was successfully applied for the 3D point cloud model reconstruction. The local point density, obtained by means of a sphere of radius equal to 0.5 m, reached a mean value of 9749, allowing to build a high-resolution model (0.013 m) for resolving fine spatial details in topography. To test the model, we compared it with another point cloud dataset which was created using a low cost do-it-yourself terrestrial laser scanner; the results showed that our georeferenced model had a good accuracy. In addition, an innovative method for the detection of the bioerosion features was implemented, through the processing of data provided by SFM like color and spatial coordinates (particularly the y coordinate). From the 3D model, we also derived topographic calculations such as slope angle and surface roughness, to get associations between the surface topography and bioerosion features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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15 pages, 455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Moisture-in-Solid-Insulation Sensor for Power Transformers

by Belén García^1,*

, Diego García² and Guillermo Robles¹

¹ Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avda de la Universidad 30, Leganés, Madrid 28911, Spain

² School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Edificio 356 - Ciudad Universitaria, Meléndez, Calle 13 No 100-00, Cali 760032, Colombia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3610-3624; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203610 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5958

Abstract

Moisture is an important variable that must be kept under control to guarantee a safe operation of power transformers. Because of the hydrophilic character of cellulose, water mainly remains in the solid insulation, while just a few parts per million are dissolved in [...] Read more.

Moisture is an important variable that must be kept under control to guarantee a safe operation of power transformers. Because of the hydrophilic character of cellulose, water mainly remains in the solid insulation, while just a few parts per million are dissolved in oil. The distribution of moisture between paper and oil is not static, but varies depending on the insulation temperature, and thus, water migration processes take place continuously during transformers operation. In this work, a sensor is presented that allows the determination of the moisture content of the transformer solid insulation in the steady state and during the moisture migration processes. The main objective of the design is that the electrodes of the sensor should not obstruct the movement of water from the solid insulation to the oil, so the proposed prototype uses a metallic-mesh electrode to do the measurements. The measurement setup is based on the characterization of the insulation dielectric response by means of the frequency dielectric spectroscopy (FDS) method. The sensitivity of the proposed sensor has been tested on samples with a moisture content within 1% to 5%, demonstrating the good sensitivity and repeatability of the measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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25 pages, 12259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chain-Based Communication in Cylindrical Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

by Nadeem Javaid^1,*

, Mohsin Raza Jafri¹, Zahoor Ali Khan^2,3

, Nabil Alrajeh^4,*, Muhammad Imran⁵ and Athanasios Vasilakos⁶

¹ COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

² Internetworking Program, FE, Dalhousie University, Halifax B3J 4R2, Canada

³ CIS, Higher Colleges of Technology, Fujairah Campus 4114, UAE

⁴ B.M.T, C.A.M.S, King Saud University, Riyadh 11633, Saudi Arabia

⁵ Deanship of E-Transactions and Communication, King Saud University, Riyadh 11692, Saudi Arabia

⁶ Department of Computer Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait City 13060, Kuwait

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3625-3649; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203625 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7223

Abstract

Appropriate network design is very significant for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). Application-oriented UWSNs are planned to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, there is always a demand for efficient data routing schemes, which can fulfill certain requirements of application-oriented UWSNs. These networks can be [...] Read more.

Appropriate network design is very significant for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). Application-oriented UWSNs are planned to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, there is always a demand for efficient data routing schemes, which can fulfill certain requirements of application-oriented UWSNs. These networks can be of any shape, i.e., rectangular, cylindrical or square. In this paper, we propose chain-based routing schemes for application-oriented cylindrical networks and also formulate mathematical models to find a global optimum path for data transmission. In the first scheme, we devise four interconnected chains of sensor nodes to perform data communication. In the second scheme, we propose routing scheme in which two chains of sensor nodes are interconnected, whereas in third scheme single-chain based routing is done in cylindrical networks. After finding local optimum paths in separate chains, we find global optimum paths through their interconnection. Moreover, we develop a computational model for the analysis of end-to-end delay. We compare the performance of the above three proposed schemes with that of Power Efficient Gathering System in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS) and Congestion adjusted PEGASIS (C-PEGASIS). Simulation results show that our proposed 4-chain based scheme performs better than the other selected schemes in terms of network lifetime, end-to-end delay, path loss, transmission loss, and packet sending rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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21 pages, 2319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye-Safe Lidar System for Pesticide Spray Drift Measurement

by Eduard Gregorio^1,*, Francesc Rocadenbosch², Ricardo Sanz³ and Joan R. Rosell-Polo³

¹ Department of Agricultural and Forest Engineering, Research Group on AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, Universitat de Lleida (UdL), Campus Cappont, Bldg CREA, Pere de Cabrera s/n, 25001 Lleida, Spain

² Department of Signal Theory and Communications, Remote Sensing Laboratory, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Campus Nord, Bldg D4, Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain

³ Department of Agricultural and Forest Engineering, Research Group on AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, Universitat de Lleida (UdL), Campus ETSEA, Av/ Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3650-3670; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203650 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9245

Abstract

Spray drift is one of the main sources of pesticide contamination. For this reason, an accurate understanding of this phenomenon is necessary in order to limit its effects. Nowadays, spray drift is usually studied by using in situ collectors which only allow time-integrated [...] Read more.

Spray drift is one of the main sources of pesticide contamination. For this reason, an accurate understanding of this phenomenon is necessary in order to limit its effects. Nowadays, spray drift is usually studied by using in situ collectors which only allow time-integrated sampling of specific points of the pesticide clouds. Previous research has demonstrated that the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique can be an alternative for spray drift monitoring. This technique enables remote measurement of pesticide clouds with high temporal and distance resolution. Despite these advantages, the fact that no lidar instrument suitable for such an application is presently available has appreciably limited its practical use. This work presents the first eye-safe lidar system specifically designed for the monitoring of pesticide clouds. Parameter design of this system is carried out via signal-to-noise ratio simulations. The instrument is based on a 3-mJ pulse-energy erbium-doped glass laser, an 80-mm diameter telescope, an APD optoelectronic receiver and optomechanically adjustable components. In first test measurements, the lidar system has been able to measure a topographic target located over 2 km away. The instrument has also been used in spray drift studies, demonstrating its capability to monitor the temporal and distance evolution of several pesticide clouds emitted by air-assisted sprayers at distances between 50 and 100 m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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17 pages, 3786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Optimized Method of Olive Tree Crown Volume Measurement

by Antonio Miranda-Fuentes¹, Jordi Llorens¹

, Juan L. Gamarra-Diezma¹, Jesús A. Gil-Ribes¹ and Emilio Gil^2,*

¹ Dpto. de Ingeniería Rural, Área de Mecanización y Tecnología Rural, Universidad de Córdoba, 14005 Córdoba, Spain

² Department of Agri Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Esteve Terradas 8, Campus del Baix Llobregat D4, 08860 Castelledfels, Barcelona, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3671-3687; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203671 - 4 Feb 2015

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 10086

Abstract

Accurate crown characterization of large isolated olive trees is vital for adjusting spray doses in three-dimensional crop agriculture. Among the many methodologies available, laser sensors have proved to be the most reliable and accurate. However, their operation is time consuming and requires specialist [...] Read more.

Accurate crown characterization of large isolated olive trees is vital for adjusting spray doses in three-dimensional crop agriculture. Among the many methodologies available, laser sensors have proved to be the most reliable and accurate. However, their operation is time consuming and requires specialist knowledge and so a simpler crown characterization method is required. To this end, three methods were evaluated and compared with LiDAR measurements to determine their accuracy: Vertical Crown Projected Area method (VCPA), Ellipsoid Volume method (V_E) and Tree Silhouette Volume method (V_TS). Trials were performed in three different kinds of olive tree plantations: intensive, adapted one-trunked traditional and traditional. In total, 55 trees were characterized. Results show that all three methods are appropriate to estimate the crown volume, reaching high coefficients of determination: R² = 0.783, 0.843 and 0.824 for VCPA, V_E and V_TS, respectively. However, discrepancies arise when evaluating tree plantations separately, especially for traditional trees. Here, correlations between LiDAR volume and other parameters showed that the Mean Vector calculated for VCPA method showed the highest correlation for traditional trees, thus its use in traditional plantations is highly recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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18 pages, 1308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of the Second Generation Berry Impact Recording Device (BIRD II)

by Rui Xu and Changying Li^*

College of Engineering, The University of Georgia, 200 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3688-3705; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203688 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6139

Abstract

To quantitatively measure the impacts during blueberry harvesting and post-harvest handling, this study designed the second generation Berry Impact Recording Device (BIRD II) sensor with a size of 21 mm in diameter and a weight of 3.9 g, which reduced the size by [...] Read more.

To quantitatively measure the impacts during blueberry harvesting and post-harvest handling, this study designed the second generation Berry Impact Recording Device (BIRD II) sensor with a size of 21 mm in diameter and a weight of 3.9 g, which reduced the size by 17% and the weight by 50% compared to the previous prototype. The sensor was able to measure accelerations up to 346 g at a maximum frequency of 2 KHz. Universal Serial Bus (USB) was used to directly connect the sensor with the computer, removing the interface box used previously. LabVIEW-based PC software was designed to configure the sensor, download and process the data. The sensor was calibrated using a centrifuge. The accuracy of the sensor was between –1.76 g to 2.17 g, and the precision was between 0.21 g to 0.81 g. Dynamic drop tests showed that BIRD II had smaller variance in measurements than BIRD I. In terms of size and weight, BIRD II is more similar to an average blueberry fruit than BIRD I, which leads to more accurate measurements of the impacts for blueberries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2789 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plasmonic Gold Nanostars for Multi-Modality Sensing and Diagnostics

by Yang Liu^1,2,3, Hsiangkuo Yuan^1,2, Farrell R. Kersey⁴, Janna K. Register^1,2, Matthew C. Parrott⁴ and Tuan Vo-Dinh^1,2,3,*

¹ Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA

² Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA

³ Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA

⁴ Department of Radiology & Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27510, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3706-3720; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203706 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 10585

Abstract

Gold nanostars (AuNSs) are unique systems that can provide a novel multifunctional nanoplatform for molecular sensing and diagnostics. The plasmonic absorption band of AuNSs can be tuned to the near infrared spectral range, often referred to as the “tissue optical window”, where light [...] Read more.

Gold nanostars (AuNSs) are unique systems that can provide a novel multifunctional nanoplatform for molecular sensing and diagnostics. The plasmonic absorption band of AuNSs can be tuned to the near infrared spectral range, often referred to as the “tissue optical window”, where light exhibits minimal absorption and deep penetration in tissue. AuNSs have been applied for detecting disease biomarkers and for biomedical imaging using multi-modality methods including surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), two-photon photoluminescence (TPL), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and X-ray computer tomography (CT) imaging. In this paper, we provide an overview of the recent development of plasmonic AuNSs in our laboratory for biomedical applications and highlight their potential for future translational medicine as a multifunctional nanoplatform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Nanomaterials and Devices for Biomedical Engineering and Sensing Applications' Papers Selected from the Energy Materials Nanotechnology (EMN) Fall Meeting, November 22–25, 2014, Orlando, USA)

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29 pages, 2570 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wearable Sensor Systems for Infants

by Zhihua Zhu¹, Tao Liu^1,2,*

, Guangyi Li¹, Tong Li¹ and Yoshio Inoue²

¹ The State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power Transmission and Control, Department of Mechanical Engeering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

² School of Systems Engineering, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi 780-8520, Japan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3721-3749; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203721 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 157 | Viewed by 22159

Abstract

Continuous health status monitoring of infants is achieved with the development and fusion of wearable sensing technologies, wireless communication techniques and a low energy-consumption microprocessor with high performance data processing algorithms. As a clinical tool applied in the constant monitoring of physiological parameters [...] Read more.

Continuous health status monitoring of infants is achieved with the development and fusion of wearable sensing technologies, wireless communication techniques and a low energy-consumption microprocessor with high performance data processing algorithms. As a clinical tool applied in the constant monitoring of physiological parameters of infants, wearable sensor systems for infants are able to transmit the information obtained inside an infant’s body to clinicians or parents. Moreover, such systems with integrated sensors can perceive external threats such as falling or drowning and warn parents immediately. Firstly, the paper reviews some available wearable sensor systems for infants; secondly, we introduce the different modules of the framework in the sensor systems; lastly, the methods and techniques applied in the wearable sensor systems are summarized and discussed. The latest research and achievements have been highlighted in this paper and the meaningful applications in healthcare and behavior analysis are also presented. Moreover, we give a lucid perspective of the development of wearable sensor systems for infants in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors)

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16 pages, 1772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Omega-k Algorithm for High-Speed Platform Highly-Squint Staggered SAR Based on Azimuth Non-Uniform Interpolation

by Hong-Cheng Zeng¹

, Jie Chen¹, Wei Liu²

and Wei Yang^1,*

¹ School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

² Electronic and Electronic Engineering Department, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1-3JD, UK

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3750-3765; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203750 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7451

Abstract

In this work, the staggered SAR technique is employed for high-speed platform highly-squint SAR by varying the pulse repetition interval (PRI) as a linear function of range-walk. To focus the staggered SAR data more efficiently, a low-complexity modified Omega-k algorithm is proposed based [...] Read more.

In this work, the staggered SAR technique is employed for high-speed platform highly-squint SAR by varying the pulse repetition interval (PRI) as a linear function of range-walk. To focus the staggered SAR data more efficiently, a low-complexity modified Omega-k algorithm is proposed based on a novel method for optimal azimuth non-uniform interpolation, avoiding zero padding in range direction for recovering range cell migration (RCM) and saving in both data storage and computational load. An approximate model on continuous PRI variation with respect to sliding receive-window is employed in the proposed algorithm, leaving a residual phase error only due to the effect of a time-varying Doppler phase caused by staggered SAR. Then, azimuth non-uniform interpolation (ANI) at baseband is carried out to compensate the azimuth non-uniform sampling (ANS) effect resulting from continuous PRI variation, which is further followed by the modified Omega-k algorithm. The proposed algorithm has a significantly lower computational complexity, but with an equally effective imaging performance, as shown in our simulation results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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23 pages, 3952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Wireless Sensor Network Topology and Estimation of Optimal Network Deployment by Deterministic Radio Channel Characterization

by Erik Aguirre¹, Peio Lopez-Iturri¹

, Leire Azpilicueta¹, José Javier Astrain²

, Jesús Villadangos^2,3

and Francisco Falcone^1,3,*

¹ Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department , Universidad Pública de Navarra, Pamplona 31006, Spain

² Computer and Mathematics Engineering Department, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Pamplona 31006, Spain

³ Smart Cities Institute, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Pamplona 31006, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3766-3788; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203766 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6624

Abstract

One of the main challenges in the implementation and design of context-aware scenarios is the adequate deployment strategy for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), mainly due to the strong dependence of the radiofrequency physical layer with the surrounding media, which can lead to non-optimal [...] Read more.

One of the main challenges in the implementation and design of context-aware scenarios is the adequate deployment strategy for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), mainly due to the strong dependence of the radiofrequency physical layer with the surrounding media, which can lead to non-optimal network designs. In this work, radioplanning analysis for WSN deployment is proposed by employing a deterministic 3D ray launching technique in order to provide insight into complex wireless channel behavior in context-aware indoor scenarios. The proposed radioplanning procedure is validated with a testbed implemented with a Mobile Ad Hoc Network WSN following a chain configuration, enabling the analysis and assessment of a rich variety of parameters, such as received signal level, signal quality and estimation of power consumption. The adoption of deterministic radio channel techniques allows the design and further deployment of WSNs in heterogeneous wireless scenarios with optimized behavior in terms of coverage, capacity, quality of service and energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 1st International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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12 pages, 1843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SnO₂ Highly Sensitive CO Gas Sensor Based on Quasi-Molecular-Imprinting Mechanism Design

by Chenjia Li, Meng Lv, Jialin Zuo and Xintang Huang^*

Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Department of Physical Science and Technology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3789-3800; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203789 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 8513

Abstract

Response of highly sensitive SnO₂ semiconductor carbon monoxide (CO) gas sensors based on target gas CO quasi-molecular-imprinting mechanism design is investigated with gas concentrations varied from 50 to 3000 ppm. SnO₂ nanoparticles prepared via hydrothermal method and gas sensor film devices [...] Read more.

Response of highly sensitive SnO₂ semiconductor carbon monoxide (CO) gas sensors based on target gas CO quasi-molecular-imprinting mechanism design is investigated with gas concentrations varied from 50 to 3000 ppm. SnO₂ nanoparticles prepared via hydrothermal method and gas sensor film devices S_C (exposed to the target gas CO for 12 h after the suspension coating of SnO₂ film to be fully dried, design of quasi-molecular-imprinting mechanism, the experiment group) and S_A (exposed to air after the suspension coating of SnO₂ film to be fully dried, the comparison group) made from SnO₂ nanoparticles are all characterized by XRD, SEM and BET surface area techniques, respectively. The gas response experimental results reveal that the sensor S_C demonstrates quicker response and higher sensitivity than the sensor S_A does. The results suggest that in addition to the transformation of gas sensor materials, surface area, and porous membrane devices, the Molecular Imprinting Theory is proved to be another way to promote the performance of gas sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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29 pages, 932 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemical DNA Hybridization Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers

by Md. Mahbubur Rahman¹, Xiao-Bo Li¹, Nasrin Siraj Lopa¹, Sang Jung Ahn² and Jae-Joon Lee^1,*

¹ Nanotechnology Research Center and Department of Applied Life Science, College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 380-701, Korea

² Center for Advanced Instrumentation, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), Daejeon 305-340, Korea

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3801-3829; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203801 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 13733

Abstract

Conducting polymers (CPs) are a group of polymeric materials that have attracted considerable attention because of their unique electronic, chemical, and biochemical properties. This is reflected in their use in a wide range of potential applications, including light-emitting diodes, anti-static coating, electrochromic materials, [...] Read more.

Conducting polymers (CPs) are a group of polymeric materials that have attracted considerable attention because of their unique electronic, chemical, and biochemical properties. This is reflected in their use in a wide range of potential applications, including light-emitting diodes, anti-static coating, electrochromic materials, solar cells, chemical sensors, biosensors, and drug-release systems. Electrochemical DNA sensors based on CPs can be used in numerous areas related to human health. This review summarizes the recent progress made in the development and use of CP-based electrochemical DNA hybridization sensors. We discuss the distinct properties of CPs with respect to their use in the immobilization of probe DNA on electrode surfaces, and we describe the immobilization techniques used for developing DNA hybridization sensors together with the various transduction methods employed. In the concluding part of this review, we present some of the challenges faced in the use of CP-based DNA hybridization sensors, as well as a future perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Amperometric Biosensors)

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4 pages, 617 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sensors for Fluid Leak Detection

by Gonzalo Pajares Martinsanz

Department of Software Engineering and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Informatics, University Complutense of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3830-3833; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203830 - 5 Feb 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6247

Abstract

Fluid leak detection represents a problem that has attracted the interest of researchers, but not exclusively because in industries and services leaks are frequently common. Indeed, in water or gas supplies, chemical or thermal plants, sea-lines or cooling/heating systems leakage rates can cause [...] Read more.

Fluid leak detection represents a problem that has attracted the interest of researchers, but not exclusively because in industries and services leaks are frequently common. Indeed, in water or gas supplies, chemical or thermal plants, sea-lines or cooling/heating systems leakage rates can cause important economic losses and sometimes, what it is more relevant, environmental pollution with human, animal or plant lives at risk. This last issue has led to increased national and international regulations with different degrees of severity regarding environmental conservation.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fluid Leak Detection)

20 pages, 844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passive Localization of Mixed Far-Field and Near-Field Sources without Estimating the Number of Sources

by Jian Xie, Haihong Tao^*, Xuan Rao and Jia Su

National Key Laboratory for Radar Signal Processing, School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, No.2 Taibai South Road, Xi'an 710071, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3834-3853; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203834 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5836

Abstract

This paper presents a novel algorithm for the localization of mixed far-field sources (FFSs) and near-field sources (NFSs) without estimating the source number. Firstly, the algorithm decouples the direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation from the range estimation by exploiting fourth-order spatial-temporal cumulants of the observed [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel algorithm for the localization of mixed far-field sources (FFSs) and near-field sources (NFSs) without estimating the source number. Firstly, the algorithm decouples the direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation from the range estimation by exploiting fourth-order spatial-temporal cumulants of the observed data. Based on the joint diagonalization structure of multiple spatial-temporal cumulant matrices, a new one-dimensional (1-D) spatial spectrum function is derived to generate the DOA estimates of both FFSs and NFSs. Then, the FFSs and NFSs are identified and the range parameters of NFSs are determined via beamforming technique. Compared with traditional mixed sources localization algorithms, the proposed algorithm avoids the performance deterioration induced by erroneous source number estimation. Furthermore, it has a higher resolution capability and improves the estimation accuracy. Computer simulations are implemented to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 2169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application on Gold Nanoparticles-Dotted 4-Nitrophenylazo Graphene in a Label-Free Impedimetric Deoxynivalenol Immunosensor

by Christopher Edozie Sunday, Milua Masikini, Lindsay Wilson, Candice Rassie, Tesfaye Waryo, Pricilla G. L. Baker and Emmanuel I. Iwuoha^*

Sensor Laboratory, Chemistry Department, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X 17, Bellville 7535, South Africa

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3854-3871; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203854 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8116

Abstract

In this paper, we report a new concept to construct a label-free electrochemical inhibition-based immunosensor for the detection of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereal samples. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of tris(bipyridine) ruthenium (II) chloride was used as a marker enhanced with gold [...] Read more.

In this paper, we report a new concept to construct a label-free electrochemical inhibition-based immunosensor for the detection of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereal samples. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of tris(bipyridine) ruthenium (II) chloride was used as a marker enhanced with gold nanoparticles-dotted 4-nitrophenylazo functionalized graphene (AuNp/G/PhNO₂) nanocatalyst mediated in Nafion on a glassy carbon electrode. Under the optimized conditions, the formation of immunocomplexes inhibited electron flow and increased the charge transfer resistance of the sensing interface linearly. The change in impedance was proportional to DON concentrations in the range of 6–30 ng/mL with a sensitivity and detection limit of 32.14 ΩL/ng and 0.3 µg/mL, respectively, which compares favorably with the ELISA result. The proposed sensor had a stability of 80.3%, good precision and selectivity in DON standard solution containing different interfering agents, indicating promising application prospect for this strategy in designing impedimetric, electrochemiluminescent, voltammetric or amperometric sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunosensors 2014)

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24 pages, 2693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monaural Sound Localization Based on Structure-Induced Acoustic Resonance

by Keonwook Kim^*

and Youngwoong Kim

Division of Electronics & Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, Seoul 100-715, Korea

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3872-3895; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203872 - 6 Feb 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6727

Abstract

A physical structure such as a cylindrical pipe controls the propagated sound spectrum in a predictable way that can be used to localize the sound source. This paper designs a monaural sound localization system based on multiple pyramidal horns around a single microphone. [...] Read more.

A physical structure such as a cylindrical pipe controls the propagated sound spectrum in a predictable way that can be used to localize the sound source. This paper designs a monaural sound localization system based on multiple pyramidal horns around a single microphone. The acoustic resonance within the horn provides a periodicity in the spectral domain known as the fundamental frequency which is inversely proportional to the radial horn length. Once the system accurately estimates the fundamental frequency, the horn length and corresponding angle can be derived by the relationship. The modified Cepstrum algorithm is employed to evaluate the fundamental frequency. In an anechoic chamber, localization experiments over azimuthal configuration show that up to 61% of the proper signal is recognized correctly with 30% misfire. With a speculated detection threshold, the system estimates direction 52% in positive-to-positive and 34% in negative-to-positive decision rate, on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)

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15 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Magnetic Immunosensor Based on Staphylococcus Protein A and the Amplification Effect of HRP-Conjugated Phage Antibody

by Xihui Mu, Zhaoyang Tong^*, Qibin Huang, Bing Liu, Zhiwei Liu, Lanqun Hao, Jinping Zhang, Chuan Gao and Fenwei Wang

Research Institute of Chemical Defence, State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3896-3910; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203896 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7253

Abstract

In this research, super-paramagnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (magnetic particles) were coated with Staphylococcus protein A (SPA) and coupled with polyclonal antibody (pcAb) to construct magnetic capturing probes, and HRP-conjugated phage antibody was then used as specific detecting probe to design a [...] Read more.

In this research, super-paramagnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (magnetic particles) were coated with Staphylococcus protein A (SPA) and coupled with polyclonal antibody (pcAb) to construct magnetic capturing probes, and HRP-conjugated phage antibody was then used as specific detecting probe to design a labeled immunosensor for trace detection of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B (SEB). The linear detection range of the sensor was 0.008~125 µg/L, the regression equation was Y = 0.487X + 1.2 (R = 0.996, N = 15, p < 0.0001), the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.008 µg/L, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.008 µg/L. HRP-conjugated phage antibody, SPA and magnetic particles can enhance the sensitivity 4-fold, 3-fold and 2.6-fold higher, respectively. Compared with conventional double-antibody sandwich ELISA, the detection sensitivity of the sensor was 31-fold higher resulting from the integrated amplifying effect. The immunosensor integrates the unique advantages of SPA-oriented antibody as magnetic capturing probe, HRP-conjugated phage antibody as detecting probe, magnetic separation immunoassay technique, and several other advanced techniques, so it achieves high sensitivity, specificity and interference-resistance. It is proven to be well suited for analysis of trace SEB in various environmental samples with high recovery rate and reproducibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunosensors 2014)

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21 pages, 393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Analysis of Reservation Frame Slotted-ALOHA in Wireless Machine-to-Machine Area Networks for Data Collection

by Francisco Vázquez-Gallego^1,*, Luis Alonso² and Jesus Alonso-Zarate¹

¹ Centre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC), Castelldefels, Barcelona 08860, Spain

² Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Castelldefels, Barcelona 08860, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3911-3931; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203911 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7241

Abstract

Reservation frame slotted-ALOHA (RFSA) was proposed in the past to manage the access to the wireless channel when devices generate long messages fragmented into small packets. In this paper, we consider an M2M area network composed of end-devices that periodically respond to the [...] Read more.

Reservation frame slotted-ALOHA (RFSA) was proposed in the past to manage the access to the wireless channel when devices generate long messages fragmented into small packets. In this paper, we consider an M2M area network composed of end-devices that periodically respond to the requests from a gateway with the transmission of fragmented messages. The idle network is suddenly set into saturation, having all end-devices attempting to get access to the channel simultaneously. This has been referred to as delta traffic. While previous works analyze the throughput of RFSA in steady-state conditions, assuming that traffic is generated following random distributions, the performance of RFSA under delta traffic has never received attention. In this paper, we propose a theoretical model to calculate the average delay and energy consumption required to resolve the contention under delta traffic using RFSA.We have carried out computer-based simulations to validate the accuracy of the theoretical model and to compare the performance for RFSA and FSA. Results show that there is an optimal frame length that minimizes delay and energy consumption and which depends on the number of end-devices. In addition, it is shown that RFSA reduces the energy consumed per end-device by more than 50% with respect to FSA under delta traffic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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20 pages, 3698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluorescence Spectroscopy Approaches for the Development of a Real-Time Organophosphate Detection System Using an Enzymatic Sensor

by Paola Carullo, Giovanni Paolo Cetrangolo, Luigi Mandrich, Giuseppe Manco^* and Ferdinando Febbraio^*

The Institute of Protein Biochemistry (IBP) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR), Via P. Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3932-3951; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203932 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 10065

Abstract

Organophosphates are organic substances that contain a phosphoryl or a thiophosphoryl bond. They are mainly used around the world as pesticides, but can also be used as chemical warfare agents. Their detection is normally entrusted to techniques like GC- and LC-MS that, although [...] Read more.

Organophosphates are organic substances that contain a phosphoryl or a thiophosphoryl bond. They are mainly used around the world as pesticides, but can also be used as chemical warfare agents. Their detection is normally entrusted to techniques like GC- and LC-MS that, although sensitive, do not allow their identification on site and in real time. We have approached their identification by exploiting the high-affinity binding of these compounds with the esterase 2 from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius. Using an in silico analysis to evaluate the binding affinities of the enzyme with organophosphate inhibitors, like paraoxon, and other organophosphate compounds, like parathion, chlorpyriphos, and other organophosphate thio-derivatives, we have designed fluorescence spectroscopy experiments to study the quenching of the tryptophan residues after esterase 2 binding with the organophosphate pesticides. The changes in the fluorescence signals permitted an immediate and quantitative identification of these compounds from nano- to picomolar concentrations. A fluorescence based polarity-sensitive probe (ANS) was also employed as a means to understand the extent of the interactions involved, as well as to explore other ways to detect organophosphate pesticides. Finally, we designed a framework for the development of a biosensor that exploits fluorescence technology in combination with a sensitive and very stable bio-receptor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy 2014)

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23 pages, 1986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

False Alarm Reduction in BSN-Based Cardiac Monitoring Using Signal Quality and Activity Type Information

by Tanatorn Tanantong¹, Ekawit Nantajeewarawat^1,* and Surapa Thiemjarus²

¹ School of Information, Computer, and Communication Technology, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, Pathum Thani 12000, Thailand

² National Electronics and Computer Technology Center, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3952-3974; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203952 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 10001

Abstract

False alarms in cardiac monitoring affect the quality of medical care, impacting on both patients and healthcare providers. In continuous cardiac monitoring using wireless Body Sensor Networks (BSNs), the quality of ECG signals can be deteriorated owing to several factors, e.g., noises, low [...] Read more.

False alarms in cardiac monitoring affect the quality of medical care, impacting on both patients and healthcare providers. In continuous cardiac monitoring using wireless Body Sensor Networks (BSNs), the quality of ECG signals can be deteriorated owing to several factors, e.g., noises, low battery power, and network transmission problems, often resulting in high false alarm rates. In addition, body movements occurring from activities of daily living (ADLs) can also create false alarms. This paper presents a two-phase framework for false arrhythmia alarm reduction in continuous cardiac monitoring, using signals from an ECG sensor and a 3D accelerometer. In the first phase, classification models constructed using machine learning algorithms are used for labeling input signals. ECG signals are labeled with heartbeat types and signal quality levels, while 3D acceleration signals are labeled with ADL types. In the second phase, a rule-based expert system is used for combining classification results in order to determine whether arrhythmia alarms should be accepted or suppressed. The proposed framework was validated on datasets acquired using BSNs and the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. For the BSN dataset, acceleration and ECG signals were collected from 10 young and 10 elderly subjects while they were performing ADLs. The framework reduced the false alarm rate from 9.58% to 1.43% in our experimental study, showing that it can potentially assist physicians in diagnosing a vast amount of data acquired from wireless sensors and enhance the performance of continuous cardiac monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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13 pages, 912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strengthening of Back Muscles Using a Module of Flexible Strain Sensors

by Wan-Chun Chuang^1,*, Hwai-Ting Lin² and Wei-Long Chen¹

¹ Department of Mechanical and Electromechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, 70 Lienhai Rd., Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan

² Department of Sports Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3975-3987; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203975 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6253

Abstract

This research aims at developing a flexible strain module applied to the strengthening of back muscles. Silver films were sputtered onto flexible substrates to produce a flexible sensor. Assuming that back muscle elongation is positively correlated with the variations in skin surface length, [...] Read more.

This research aims at developing a flexible strain module applied to the strengthening of back muscles. Silver films were sputtered onto flexible substrates to produce a flexible sensor. Assuming that back muscle elongation is positively correlated with the variations in skin surface length, real-time resistance changes exhibited by the sensor during simulated training sessions were measured. The results were used to identify the relationship between resistance change of sensors and skin surface stretch. In addition, muscle length changes from ultrasound images were used to determine the feasibility of a proof of concept sensor. Furthermore, this module is capable of detecting large muscle contractions, some of which may be undesirable for the prescribed training strategy. Therefore, the developed module can facilitate real-time assessments of the movement accuracy of users during training, and the results are instantly displayed on a screen. People using the developed training system can immediately adjust their posture to the appropriate position. Thus, the training mechanism can be constructed to help user improve the efficiency of back muscle strengthening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 1st International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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13 pages, 1145 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid and Efficient Estimation of Pea Resistance to the Soil-Borne Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum by Infrared Imaging

by Nicolas Rispail^*

and Diego Rubiales

Institute for Sustainable Agriculture, CSIC, Alameda del Obispo s/n, Apdo. 4084, Córdoba 14080, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 3988-4000; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150203988 - 9 Feb 2015

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6299

Abstract

Fusarium wilts are widespread diseases affecting most agricultural crops. In absence of efficient alternatives, sowing resistant cultivars is the preferred approach to control this disease. However, actual resistance sources are often overcome by new pathogenic races, forcing breeders to continuously search for novel [...] Read more.

Fusarium wilts are widespread diseases affecting most agricultural crops. In absence of efficient alternatives, sowing resistant cultivars is the preferred approach to control this disease. However, actual resistance sources are often overcome by new pathogenic races, forcing breeders to continuously search for novel resistance sources. Selection of resistant accessions, mainly based on the evaluation of symptoms at timely intervals, is highly time-consuming. Thus, we tested the potential of an infra-red imaging system in plant breeding to speed up this process. For this, we monitored the changes in surface leaf temperature upon infection by F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi in several pea accessions with contrasting response to Fusarium wilt under a controlled environment. Using a portable infra-red imaging system we detected a significant temperature increase of at least 0.5 °C after 10 days post-inoculation in the susceptible accessions, while the resistant accession temperature remained at control level. The increase in leaf temperature at 10 days post-inoculation was positively correlated with the AUDPC calculated over a 30 days period. Thus, this approach allowed the early discrimination between resistant and susceptible accessions. As such, applying infra-red imaging system in breeding for Fusarium wilt resistance would contribute to considerably shorten the process of selection of novel resistant sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors for Pathogen Detection)

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18 pages, 5592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Telemetry and Yield-Mapping System of Olive Harvester

by Francisco J. Castillo-Ruiz¹, Manuel Pérez-Ruiz^2,*, Gregorio L. Blanco-Roldán¹, Jesús A. Gil-Ribes¹ and Juan Agüera¹

¹ Dpto. de Ingeniería Rural, Universidad de Córdoba, Área de Mecanización y Tecnología Rural, Córdoba 14005, Spain

² Aerospace Engineering and Fluid Mechanics Department, University of Seville, Ctra. Sevilla-Utrera km 1, 41013 Seville, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4001-4018; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204001 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7248

Abstract

Sensors, communication systems and geo-reference units are required to achieve an optimized management of agricultural inputs with respect to the economic and environmental aspects of olive groves. In this study, three commercial olive harvesters were tracked during two harvesting seasons in Spain and [...] Read more.

Sensors, communication systems and geo-reference units are required to achieve an optimized management of agricultural inputs with respect to the economic and environmental aspects of olive groves. In this study, three commercial olive harvesters were tracked during two harvesting seasons in Spain and Chile using remote and autonomous equipment that was developed to determine their time efficiency and effective based on canopy shaking for fruit detachment. These harvesters work in intensive/high-density (HD) and super-high-density (SHD) olive orchards. A GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) device was installed to track these harvesters. The GNSS receiver did not affect the driver’s work schedule. Time elements methodology was adapted to the remote data acquisition system. The effective field capacity and field efficiency were investigated. In addition, the field shape, row length, angle between headland alley and row, and row alley width were measured to determinate the optimum orchard design parameters value. The SHD olive harvester showed significant lower effective field capacity values when alley width was less than 4 m. In addition, a yield monitor was developed and installed on a traditional olive harvester to obtain a yield map from the harvested area. The hedge straddle harvester stood out for its highly effective field capacity; nevertheless, a higher field efficiency was provided by a non-integral lateral canopy shaker. All of the measured orchard parameters have influenced machinery yields, whether effective field capacity or field efficiency. A saving of 40% in effective field capacity was achieved with a reduction from 4 m or higher to 3.5 m in alley width for SHD olive harvester. A yield map was plotted using data that were acquired by a yield monitor, reflecting the yield gradient in spite of the larger differences between tree yields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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33 pages, 4220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digitization and Visualization of Greenhouse Tomato Plants in Indoor Environments

by Dawei Li¹, Lihong Xu^1,*, Chengxiang Tan¹, Erik D. Goodman², Daichang Fu¹ and Longjiao Xin¹

¹ College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Tongji University, 4800 Cao'an Rd., Zhixin Building, Shanghai 201804, China

² BEACON Center, 567 Wilson Rd., Biomedical and Physical Science Building, Room 1441, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4019-4051; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204019 - 10 Feb 2015

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 14744

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the digitization and visualization of potted greenhouse tomato plants in indoor environments. For the digitization, an inexpensive and efficient commercial stereo sensor—a Microsoft Kinect—is used to separate visual information about tomato plants from background. Based on the Kinect, [...] Read more.

This paper is concerned with the digitization and visualization of potted greenhouse tomato plants in indoor environments. For the digitization, an inexpensive and efficient commercial stereo sensor—a Microsoft Kinect—is used to separate visual information about tomato plants from background. Based on the Kinect, a 4-step approach that can automatically detect and segment stems of tomato plants is proposed, including acquisition and preprocessing of image data, detection of stem segments, removing false detections and automatic segmentation of stem segments. Correctly segmented texture samples including stems and leaves are then stored in a texture database for further usage. Two types of tomato plants—the cherry tomato variety and the ordinary variety are studied in this paper. The stem detection accuracy (under a simulated greenhouse environment) for the cherry tomato variety is 98.4% at a true positive rate of 78.0%, whereas the detection accuracy for the ordinary variety is 94.5% at a true positive of 72.5%. In visualization, we combine L-system theory and digitized tomato organ texture data to build realistic 3D virtual tomato plant models that are capable of exhibiting various structures and poses in real time. In particular, we also simulate the growth process on virtual tomato plants by exerting controls on two L-systems via parameters concerning the age and the form of lateral branches. This research may provide useful visual cues for improving intelligent greenhouse control systems and meanwhile may facilitate research on artificial organisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extracting Association Patterns in Network Communications

by Javier Portela¹, Luis Javier García Villalba¹

, Alejandra Guadalupe Silva Trujillo^1,2, Ana Lucila Sandoval Orozco¹ and Tai-hoon Kim^3,*

¹ Group of Analysis, Security and Systems (GASS), Department of Software Engineering and Artificial Intelligence (DISIA), Faculty of Information Technology and Computer Science, Office 431, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Calle Profesor José García Santesmases, 9, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (UASLP), Zona Universitaria Poniente, San Luis Potosí 78290, Mexico

³ Department of Convergence Security, Sungshin Women's University, 249-1 Dongseon-dong 3-ga, Seoul 136-742, Korea

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4052-4071; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204052 - 11 Feb 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6135

Abstract

In network communications, mixes provide protection against observers hiding the appearance of messages, patterns, length and links between senders and receivers. Statistical disclosure attacks aim to reveal the identity of senders and receivers in a communication network setting when it is protected by [...] Read more.

In network communications, mixes provide protection against observers hiding the appearance of messages, patterns, length and links between senders and receivers. Statistical disclosure attacks aim to reveal the identity of senders and receivers in a communication network setting when it is protected by standard techniques based on mixes. This work aims to develop a global statistical disclosure attack to detect relationships between users. The only information used by the attacker is the number of messages sent and received by each user for each round, the batch of messages grouped by the anonymity system. A new modeling framework based on contingency tables is used. The assumptions are more flexible than those used in the literature, allowing to apply the method to multiple situations automatically, such as email data or social networks data. A classification scheme based on combinatoric solutions of the space of rounds retrieved is developed. Solutions about relationships between users are provided for all pairs of users simultaneously, since the dependence of the data retrieved needs to be addressed in a global sense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Computing for Mobile Security and Big Data Analytics)

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25 pages, 1951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Integration of a Solar Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and a Wireless Sensor Network to Monitor Greenhouse Gases

by Alexander Malaver¹, Nunzio Motta¹, Peter Corke² and Felipe Gonzalez^3,*

¹ Institute for Future Environments, School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, 3 George St, Brisbane 4000, Australia

² School of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, QLD, Australia

³ Australian Research Centre for Aerospace Automation (ARCAA), Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Airport, QLD 4007, Australia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4072-4096; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204072 - 11 Feb 2015

Cited by 126 | Viewed by 14510

Abstract

Measuring gases for environmental monitoring is a demanding task that requires long periods of observation and large numbers of sensors. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) currently represent the best alternative to monitor large, remote, and difficult access areas, as [...] Read more.

Measuring gases for environmental monitoring is a demanding task that requires long periods of observation and large numbers of sensors. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) currently represent the best alternative to monitor large, remote, and difficult access areas, as these technologies have the possibility of carrying specialized gas sensing systems. This paper presents the development and integration of a WSN and an UAV powered by solar energy in order to enhance their functionality and broader their applications. A gas sensing system implementing nanostructured metal oxide (MOX) and non-dispersive infrared sensors was developed to measure concentrations of CH₄ and CO₂. Laboratory, bench and field testing results demonstrate the capability of UAV to capture, analyze and geo-locate a gas sample during flight operations. The field testing integrated ground sensor nodes and the UAV to measure CO₂ concentration at ground and low aerial altitudes, simultaneously. Data collected during the mission was transmitted in real time to a central node for analysis and 3D mapping of the target gas. The results highlights the accomplishment of the first flight mission of a solar powered UAV equipped with a CO₂sensing system integrated with a WSN. The system provides an effective 3D monitoring and can be used in a wide range of environmental applications such as agriculture, bushfires, mining studies, zoology and botanical studies using a ubiquitous low cost technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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37 pages, 1147 KiB

Open AccessReview

Augmenting the Senses: A Review on Sensor-Based Learning Support

by Jan Schneider^*, Dirk Börner^†, Peter Van Rosmalen^† and Marcus Specht^†

¹ Welten Institute, Open University of the Netherlands, 177 Valkenburgerweg, Heerlen 6419AT, The Netherlands

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4097-4133; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204097 - 11 Feb 2015

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 14146

Abstract

In recent years sensor components have been extending classical computer-based support systems in a variety of applications domains (sports, health, etc.). In this article we review the use of sensors for the application domain of learning. For that we analyzed 82 sensor-based [...] Read more.

In recent years sensor components have been extending classical computer-based support systems in a variety of applications domains (sports, health, etc.). In this article we review the use of sensors for the application domain of learning. For that we analyzed 82 sensor-based prototypes exploring their learning support. To study this learning support we classified the prototypes according to the Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains and explored how they can be used to assist on the implementation of formative assessment, paying special attention to their use as feedback tools. The analysis leads to current research foci and gaps in the development of sensor-based learning support systems and concludes with a research agenda based on the findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HCI In Smart Environments)

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20 pages, 500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Evaluation of Wireless Real-Time Control Networks

by Peter Horvath^1,*, Mark Yampolskiy² and Xenofon Koutsoukos³

¹ Department of Broadband Infocommunication and Electromagnetic Theory, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Egry J. u. 18., Budapest H-1111, Hungary

² University of South Alabama, 150 Jaguar Drive, Mobile, AL 36688, USA

³ Institute for Software Integrated Systems, Vanderbilt University, 1025 16th Ave S, Nashville, TN 37212, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4134-4153; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204134 - 11 Feb 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6315

Abstract

In this paper, we present a system simulation framework for the design and performance evaluation of complex wireless cyber-physical systems. We describe the simulator architecture and the specific developments that are required to simulate cyber-physical systems relying on multi-channel, multihop mesh networks. We [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present a system simulation framework for the design and performance evaluation of complex wireless cyber-physical systems. We describe the simulator architecture and the specific developments that are required to simulate cyber-physical systems relying on multi-channel, multihop mesh networks. We introduce realistic and efficient physical layer models and a system simulation methodology, which provides statistically significant performance evaluation results with low computational complexity. The capabilities of the proposed framework are illustrated in the example of WirelessHART, a centralized, real-time, multi-hop mesh network designed for industrial control and monitor applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyber-Physical Systems)

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22 pages, 2630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of a Field Spectroradiometer for Unattended Vegetation Monitoring. Key Sensor Models and Impacts on Reflectance

by Javier Pacheco-Labrador^* and M. Pilar Martín

Environmental Remote Sensing and Spectrosocopy Laboratory (SpecLab), Instituto de Economía, Geografía y Demografía (IEGD), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Albasanz 26-28, 28037 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4154-4175; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204154 - 11 Feb 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6528

Abstract

Field spectroradiometers integrated in automated systems at Eddy Covariance (EC) sites are a powerful tool for monitoring and upscaling vegetation physiology and carbon and water fluxes. However, exposure to varying environmental conditions can affect the functioning of these sensors, especially if these cannot [...] Read more.

Field spectroradiometers integrated in automated systems at Eddy Covariance (EC) sites are a powerful tool for monitoring and upscaling vegetation physiology and carbon and water fluxes. However, exposure to varying environmental conditions can affect the functioning of these sensors, especially if these cannot be completely insulated and stabilized. This can cause inaccuracy in the spectral measurements and hinder the comparison between data acquired at different sites. This paper describes the characterization of key sensor models in a double beam spectroradiometer necessary to calculate the Hemispherical-Conical Reflectance Factor (HCRF). Dark current, temperature dependence, non-linearity, spectral calibration and cosine receptor directional responses are modeled in the laboratory as a function of temperature, instrument settings, radiation measured or illumination angle. These models are used to correct the spectral measurements acquired continuously by the same instrument integrated outdoors in an automated system (AMSPEC-MED). Results suggest that part of the instrumental issues cancel out mutually or can be controlled by the instrument configuration, so that changes induced in HCFR reached about 0.05 at maximum. However, these corrections are necessary to ensure the inter-comparison of data with other ground or remote sensors and to discriminate instrumentally induced changes in HCRF from those related with vegetation physiology and directional effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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17 pages, 2742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive SAR Imaging with Joint Sparsity and Local Similarity Exploitation

by Fangfang Shen, Guanghui Zhao^*, Guangming Shi, Weisheng Dong, Chenglong Wang and Yi Niu

School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4176-4192; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204176 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6137

Abstract

Compressive sensing-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging has shown its superior capability in high-resolution image formation. However, most of those works focus on the scenes that can be sparsely represented in fixed spaces. When dealing with complicated scenes, these fixed spaces lack adaptivity [...] Read more.

Compressive sensing-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging has shown its superior capability in high-resolution image formation. However, most of those works focus on the scenes that can be sparsely represented in fixed spaces. When dealing with complicated scenes, these fixed spaces lack adaptivity in characterizing varied image contents. To solve this problem, a new compressive sensing-based radar imaging approach with adaptive sparse representation is proposed. Specifically, an autoregressive model is introduced to adaptively exploit the structural sparsity of an image. In addition, similarity among pixels is integrated into the autoregressive model to further promote the capability and thus an adaptive sparse representation facilitated by a weighted autoregressive model is derived. Since the weighted autoregressive model is inherently determined by the unknown image, we propose a joint optimization scheme by iterative SAR imaging and updating of the weighted autoregressive model to solve this problem. Eventually, experimental results demonstrated the validity and generality of the proposed approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 2065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Sensor-Based Rehabilitation Exercise Assessment for Knee Osteoarthritis

by Kun-Hui Chen^1,2, Po-Chao Chen¹, Kai-Chun Liu¹

and Chia-Tai Chan^1,*

¹ Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, 155, Li-Nong St., Sec.2, Peitou, Taipei 11221, Taiwan

² Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, 1650 Taiwan Boulevard Sect. 4, Taichung 40705, Taiwan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4193-4211; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204193 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 93 | Viewed by 13198

Abstract

Since the knee joint bears the full weight load of the human body and the highest pressure loads while providing flexible movement, it is the body part most vulnerable and susceptible to osteoarthritis. In exercise therapy, the early rehabilitation stages last for approximately [...] Read more.

Since the knee joint bears the full weight load of the human body and the highest pressure loads while providing flexible movement, it is the body part most vulnerable and susceptible to osteoarthritis. In exercise therapy, the early rehabilitation stages last for approximately six weeks, during which the patient works with the physical therapist several times each week. The patient is afterwards given instructions for continuing rehabilitation exercise by him/herself at home. This study develops a rehabilitation exercise assessment mechanism using three wearable sensors mounted on the chest, thigh and shank of the working leg in order to enable the patients with knee osteoarthritis to manage their own rehabilitation progress. In this work, time-domain, frequency-domain features and angle information of the motion sensor signals are used to classify the exercise type and identify whether their postures are proper or not. Three types of rehabilitation exercise commonly prescribed to knee osteoarthritis patients are: Short-Arc Exercise, Straight Leg Raise, and Quadriceps Strengthening Mini-squats. After ten subjects performed the three kinds of rehabilitation activities, three validation techniques including 10-fold cross-validation, within subject cross validation, and leave-one-subject cross validation are utilized to confirm the proposed mechanism. The overall recognition accuracy for exercise type classification is 97.29% and for exercise posture identification it is 88.26%. The experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed mechanism which can help patients perform rehabilitation movements and progress effectively. Moreover, the proposed mechanism is able to detect multiple errors at once, fulfilling the requirements for rehabilitation assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 1817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sol-Gel Deposition of Iridium Oxide for Biomedical Micro-Devices

by Cuong M. Nguyen^1,*, Smitha Rao¹, Xuesong Yang¹, Souvik Dubey¹, Jeffrey Mays¹, Hung Cao² and Jung-Chih Chiao¹

¹ Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Texas, Arlington, TX 76019, USA

² Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4212-4228; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204212 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9020

Abstract

Flexible iridium oxide (IrO_x)-based micro-electrodes were fabricated on flexible polyimide substrates using a sol-gel deposition process for utilization as integrated pseudo-reference electrodes for bio-electrochemical sensing applications. The fabrication method yields reliable miniature on-probe IrO_x electrodes with long lifetime, high stability [...] Read more.

Flexible iridium oxide (IrO_x)-based micro-electrodes were fabricated on flexible polyimide substrates using a sol-gel deposition process for utilization as integrated pseudo-reference electrodes for bio-electrochemical sensing applications. The fabrication method yields reliable miniature on-probe IrO_x electrodes with long lifetime, high stability and repeatability. Such sensors can be used for long-term measurements. Various dimensions of sol-gel iridium oxide electrodes including 1 mm × 1 mm, 500 µm × 500 µm, and 100 µm × 100 µm were fabricated. Sensor longevity and pH dependence were investigated by immersing the electrodes in hydrochloric acid, fetal bovine serum (FBS), and sodium hydroxide solutions for 30 days. Less pH dependent responses, compared to IrO_x electrodes fabricated by electrochemical deposition processes, were measured at 58.8 ± 0.4 mV/pH, 53.8 ± 1.3 mV/pH and 48 ± 0.6 mV/pH, respectively. The on-probe IrO_x pseudo-reference electrodes were utilized for dopamine sensing. The baseline responses of the sensors were higher than the one using an external Ag/AgCl reference electrode. Using IrO_x reference electrodes integrated on the same probe with working electrodes eliminated the use of cytotoxic Ag/AgCl reference electrode without loss in sensitivity. This enables employing such sensors in long-term recording of concentrations of neurotransmitters in central nervous systems of animals and humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sol-Gel Based Sensors and Devices)

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13 pages, 340 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microbial Biofilm as a Smart Material

by Christian Garde¹, Martin Welch², Jesper Ferkinghoff-Borg^3,* and Thomas Sams^4,*

¹ Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet 208, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

² Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Hopkins Building, Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK

³ Biotech Research & Innovation Centre, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

⁴ Biomedical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsteds Plads 349, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4229-4241; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204229 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5954

Abstract

Microbial biofilm colonies will in many cases form a smart material capable of responding to external threats dependent on their size and internal state. The microbial community accordingly switches between passive, protective, or attack modes of action. In order to decide which strategy [...] Read more.

Microbial biofilm colonies will in many cases form a smart material capable of responding to external threats dependent on their size and internal state. The microbial community accordingly switches between passive, protective, or attack modes of action. In order to decide which strategy to employ, it is essential for the biofilm community to be able to sense its own size. The sensor designed to perform this task is termed a quorum sensor, since it only permits collective behaviour once a sufficiently large assembly of microbes have been established. The generic quorum sensor construct involves two genes, one coding for the production of a diffusible signal molecule and one coding for a regulator protein dedicated to sensing the signal molecules. A positive feedback in the signal molecule production sets a well-defined condition for switching into the collective mode. The activation of the regulator involves a slow dimerization, which allows low-pass filtering of the activation of the collective mode. Here, we review and combine the model components that form the basic quorum sensor in a number of Gram-negative bacteria, e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Materials for Switchable Sensors)

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11 pages, 1219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ionizing Radiation Detectors Based on Ge-Doped Optical Fibers Inserted in Resonant Cavities

by Saverio Avino^1,*, Vittoria D'Avino², Antonio Giorgini¹, Roberto Pacelli³, Raffaele Liuzzi², Laura Cella²

, Paolo De Natale⁴ and Gianluca Gagliardi¹

¹ Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica (INO), via Campi Flegrei 34—Comprensorio A. Olivetti, 80078 Pozzuoli (Na), Italy

² Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, via Tommaso De Amicis 95, 80131 Napoli, Italy

³ Università di Napoli Federico II, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Avanzate, via Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy

⁴ Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica (INO), Largo Enrico Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Italy

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4242-4252; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204242 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7963

Abstract

The measurement of ionizing radiation (IR) is a crucial issue in different areas of interest, from environmental safety and industrial monitoring to aerospace and medicine. Optical fiber sensors have recently proven good candidates as radiation dosimeters. Here we investigate the effect of IR [...] Read more.

The measurement of ionizing radiation (IR) is a crucial issue in different areas of interest, from environmental safety and industrial monitoring to aerospace and medicine. Optical fiber sensors have recently proven good candidates as radiation dosimeters. Here we investigate the effect of IR on germanosilicate optical fibers. A piece of Ge-doped fiber enclosed between two fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) is irradiated with gamma radiation generated by a 6 MV medical linear accelerator. With respect to other FBG-based IR dosimeters, here the sensor is only the bare fiber without any special internal structure. A near infrared laser is frequency locked to the cavity modes for high resolution measurement of radiation induced effects on the fiber optical parameters. In particular, we observe a variation of the fiber thermo-optic response with the radiation dose delivered, as expected from the interaction with Ge defect centers, and demonstrate a detection limit of 360 mGy. This method can have an impact in those contexts where low radiation doses have to be measured both in small volumes or over large areas, such as radiation therapy and radiation protection, while bare optical fibers are cheap and disposable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Optical Biosensors)

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11 pages, 1646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Wide Temperature Range CMOS Interface Circuit for Capacitive MEMS Pressure Sensors

by Yucai Wang and Vamsy P. Chodavarapu^*

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McGill University, McConnell Engineering Building, 3480 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0E9, Canada

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4253-4263; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204253 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 9582

Abstract

We describe a Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) differential interface circuit for capacitive Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) pressure sensors that is functional over a wide temperature range between −55 °C and 225 °C. The circuit is implemented using IBM 0.13 μm CMOS technology with 2.5 [...] Read more.

We describe a Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) differential interface circuit for capacitive Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) pressure sensors that is functional over a wide temperature range between −55 °C and 225 °C. The circuit is implemented using IBM 0.13 μm CMOS technology with 2.5 V power supply. A constant-g_m biasing technique is used to mitigate performance degradation at high temperatures. The circuit offers the flexibility to interface with MEMS sensors with a wide range of the steady-state capacitance values from 0.5 pF to 10 pF. Simulation results show that the circuitry has excellent linearity and stability over the wide temperature range. Experimental results confirm that the temperature effects on the circuitry are small, with an overall linearity error around 2%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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9 pages, 429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous 2D Strain Sensing Using Polymer Planar Bragg Gratings

by Manuel Rosenberger^1,*, Waltraud Eisenbeil¹, Bernhard Schmauss²

and Ralf Hellmann¹

¹ Applied Laser and Photonics Group, University of Applied Sciences Aschaffenburg, Wuerzburger Strasse 45, 63743 Aschaffenburg, Germany

² Institute of Microwaves and Photonics, University of Erlangen-Nuernberg, Cauerstrasse 9, 91058 Erlangen, Germany

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4264-4272; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204264 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7215

Abstract

We demonstrate the application of polymer planar Bragg gratings for multi-axial strain sensing and particularly highlight simultaneous 2D strain measurement. A polymer planar Bragg grating (PPBG) fabricated with a single writing step in bulk polymethylmethacrylate is used for measuring both tensile and compressive [...] Read more.

We demonstrate the application of polymer planar Bragg gratings for multi-axial strain sensing and particularly highlight simultaneous 2D strain measurement. A polymer planar Bragg grating (PPBG) fabricated with a single writing step in bulk polymethylmethacrylate is used for measuring both tensile and compressive strain at various angles. It is shown that the sensitivity of the PPBG strongly depends on the angle between the optical waveguide into which the grating is inscribed and the direction along which the mechanical load is applied. Additionally, a 2D PPBG fabricated by writing two Bragg gratings angularly displaced from each other into a single polymer platelet is bonded to a stainless steel plate. The two reflected wavelengths exhibit different sensitivities while tested toward tensile and compressive strain. These characteristics make 2D PPBG suitable for measuring multi-axial tensile and compressive strain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Sensors for Chemical, Biological and Industrial Applications)

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18 pages, 516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Accurate Link Correlation Estimator for Improving Wireless Protocol Performance

by Zhiwei Zhao¹, Xianghua Xu², Wei Dong^1,* and Jiajun Bu¹

¹ College of Computer Science, Zhejiang University, #38, Zheda Road, Hangzhou 310027, China

² Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Data Storage and Transmission Tech, School of Computer Science, Hangzhou Dianzi University, #1158, Baiyang Block #2, Hangzhou 310027, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4273-4290; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204273 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5450

Abstract

Wireless link correlation has shown significant impact on the performance of various sensor network protocols. Many works have been devoted to exploiting link correlation for protocol improvements. However, the effectiveness of these designs heavily relies on the accuracy of link correlation measurement. In [...] Read more.

Wireless link correlation has shown significant impact on the performance of various sensor network protocols. Many works have been devoted to exploiting link correlation for protocol improvements. However, the effectiveness of these designs heavily relies on the accuracy of link correlation measurement. In this paper, we investigate state-of-the-art link correlation measurement and analyze the limitations of existing works. We then propose a novel lightweight and accurate link correlation estimation (LACE) approach based on the reasoning of link correlation formation. LACE combines both long-term and short-term link behaviors for link correlation estimation. We implement LACE as a stand-alone interface in TinyOS and incorporate it into both routing and flooding protocols. Simulation and testbed results show that LACE: (1) achieves more accurate and lightweight link correlation measurements than the state-of-the-art work; and (2) greatly improves the performance of protocols exploiting link correlation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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11 pages, 413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Immunochromatographic Strip for Rapid Detection of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii

by Min Feng^1,2, Dezhao Kong², Wenbing Wang², Liqiang Liu², Shanshan Song² and Chuanlai Xu^2,*

¹ Huaian Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Huaian 223001, China

² State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4291-4301; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204291 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7921

Abstract

A rapid, simple, sensitive, and specific immunochromatographic test strip was developed for the detection of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii (Pss) in corn seed which was soaked overnight and then centrifuged for precipitate re-dissolved as samples. A pair of sensitive monoclonal antibodies for the [...] Read more.

A rapid, simple, sensitive, and specific immunochromatographic test strip was developed for the detection of Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii (Pss) in corn seed which was soaked overnight and then centrifuged for precipitate re-dissolved as samples. A pair of sensitive monoclonal antibodies for the immunochromatographic test strip was generated by mice immunization and cell fusion. Under optimized conditions, the lower detection limit of the strips for Pss was 1 × 10⁵ cfu/mL both in 0.01 M phosphate buffer solution and corn seed samples, with no cross-reactivity with other common plant pathogens. The developed strip is useful and rapid for the detection of Pss in corn seed samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunosensors 2014)

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24 pages, 1327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Overview of Distributed Microgrid State Estimation and Control for Smart Grids

by Md Masud Rana^* and Li Li

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology, Sydney Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4302-4325; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204302 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 9274

Abstract

Given the significant concerns regarding carbon emission from the fossil fuels, global warming and energy crisis, the renewable distributed energy resources (DERs) are going to be integrated in the smart grid. This grid can spread the intelligence of the energy distribution and control [...] Read more.

Given the significant concerns regarding carbon emission from the fossil fuels, global warming and energy crisis, the renewable distributed energy resources (DERs) are going to be integrated in the smart grid. This grid can spread the intelligence of the energy distribution and control system from the central unit to the long-distance remote areas, thus enabling accurate state estimation (SE) and wide-area real-time monitoring of these intermittent energy sources. In contrast to the traditional methods of SE, this paper proposes a novel accuracy dependent Kalman filter (KF) based microgrid SE for the smart grid that uses typical communication systems. Then this article proposes a discrete-time linear quadratic regulation to control the state deviations of the microgrid incorporating multiple DERs. Therefore, integrating these two approaches with application to the smart grid forms a novel contributions in green energy and control research communities. Finally, the simulation results show that the proposed KF based microgrid SE and control algorithm provides an accurate SE and control compared with the existing method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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27 pages, 18030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Illumination-Invariant and Deformation-Tolerant Inner Knuckle Print Recognition Using Portable Devices

by Xuemiao Xu^1,*, Qiang Jin¹, Le Zhou¹, Jing Qin^2,*, Tien-Tsin Wong^3,4 and Guoqiang Han¹

¹ School of Computer Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu, Guangzhou 510006, China

² National-Regional Key Technology Engineering Laboratory for Medical Ultrasound, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China

³ Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China

⁴ Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4326-4352; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204326 - 12 Feb 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7513

Abstract

We propose a novel biometric recognition method that identifies the inner knuckle print (IKP). It is robust enough to confront uncontrolled lighting conditions, pose variations and low imaging quality. Such robustness is crucial for its application on portable devices equipped with consumer-level cameras. [...] Read more.

We propose a novel biometric recognition method that identifies the inner knuckle print (IKP). It is robust enough to confront uncontrolled lighting conditions, pose variations and low imaging quality. Such robustness is crucial for its application on portable devices equipped with consumer-level cameras. We achieve this robustness by two means. First, we propose a novel feature extraction scheme that highlights the salient structure and suppresses incorrect and/or unwanted features. The extracted IKP features retain simple geometry and morphology and reduce the interference of illumination. Second, to counteract the deformation induced by different hand orientations, we propose a novel structure-context descriptor based on local statistics. To our best knowledge, we are the first to simultaneously consider the illumination invariance and deformation tolerance for appearance-based low-resolution hand biometrics. Settings in previous works are more restrictive. They made strong assumptions either about the illumination condition or the restrictive hand orientation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method outperforms the state-of-the-art methods in terms of recognition accuracy, especially under uncontrolled lighting conditions and the flexible hand orientation requirement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 1594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Choline Oxidase Amperometric Bioassay for the Detection of Mustard Agents Based on Screen-Printed Electrodes Modified with Prussian Blue Nanoparticles

by Fabiana Arduini^1,*, Viviana Scognamiglio², Corrado Covaia¹, Aziz Amine³, Danila Moscone¹ and Giuseppe Palleschi¹

¹ Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Via Della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133 Rome, Italy

² Dipartimento Agroalimentare, IC-CNR Istituto di Cristallografia, Via Salaria Km 29.3, 00015 Monterotondo Scalo, Rome 00015, Italy

³ Laboratoire Génie des Procédés et Environnement, Faculté de Sciences et Techniques, Université Hassan II—Mohammedia, B.P.146, Mohammadia 20850, Morocco

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4353-4367; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204353 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7191

Abstract

In this work a novel bioassay for mustard agent detection was proposed. The bioassay is based on the capability of these compounds to inhibit the enzyme choline oxidase. The enzymatic activity, which is correlated to the mustard agents, was electrochemically monitored measuring the [...] Read more.

In this work a novel bioassay for mustard agent detection was proposed. The bioassay is based on the capability of these compounds to inhibit the enzyme choline oxidase. The enzymatic activity, which is correlated to the mustard agents, was electrochemically monitored measuring the enzymatic product, hydrogen peroxide, by means of a screen-printed electrode modified with Prussian Blue nanoparticles. Prussian Blue nanoparticles are able to electrocatalyse the hydrogen peroxide concentration reduction at low applied potential (−50 mV vs. Ag/AgCl), thus allowing the detection of the mustard agents with no electrochemical interferences. The suitability of this novel bioassay was tested with the nitrogen mustard simulant bis(2-chloroethyl)amine and the sulfur mustard simulants 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide and 2-chloroethyl phenyl sulfide. The bioassay proposed in this work allowed the detection of mustard agent simulants with good sensitivity and fast response, which are excellent premises for the development of a miniaturised sensor well suited for an alarm system in case of terrorist attacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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20 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stationary North-Finding Scheme for an Azimuth Rotational IMU Utilizing a Linear State Equality Constraint

by Huapeng Yu^1,*, Hai Zhu¹, Dayuan Gao¹, Meng Yu² and Wenqi Wu³

¹ Department of Navigation and Communication, Navy Submarine Academy, Qingdao 266042, China

² College of Aerospace Science and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

³ College of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4368-4387; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204368 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6754

Abstract

The Kalman filter (KF) has always been used to improve north-finding performance under practical conditions. By analyzing the characteristics of the azimuth rotational inertial measurement unit (ARIMU) on a stationary base, a linear state equality constraint for the conventional KF used in the [...] Read more.

The Kalman filter (KF) has always been used to improve north-finding performance under practical conditions. By analyzing the characteristics of the azimuth rotational inertial measurement unit (ARIMU) on a stationary base, a linear state equality constraint for the conventional KF used in the fine north-finding filtering phase is derived. Then, a constrained KF using the state equality constraint is proposed and studied in depth. Estimation behaviors of the concerned navigation errors when implementing the conventional KF scheme and the constrained KF scheme during stationary north-finding are investigated analytically by the stochastic observability approach, which can provide explicit formulations of the navigation errors with influencing variables. Finally, multiple practical experimental tests at a fixed position are done on a postulate system to compare the stationary north-finding performance of the two filtering schemes. In conclusion, this study has successfully extended the utilization of the stochastic observability approach for analytic descriptions of estimation behaviors of the concerned navigation errors, and the constrained KF scheme has demonstrated its superiority over the conventional KF scheme for ARIMU stationary north-finding both theoretically and practically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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20 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Soft-Hard Combination-Based Cooperative Spectrum Sensing Scheme for Cognitive Radio Networks

by Nhu Tri Do¹

and Beongku An^2,*

¹ Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering in Graduate School, Hongik University, Sejong 339-701, Korea

² Department of Computer & Information Communications Engineering, Hongik University, Sejong 339-701, Korea

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4388-4407; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204388 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7433

Abstract

In this paper we propose a soft-hard combination scheme, called SHC scheme, for cooperative spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks. The SHC scheme deploys a cluster based network in which Likelihood Ratio Test (LRT)-based soft combination is applied at each cluster, and weighted [...] Read more.

In this paper we propose a soft-hard combination scheme, called SHC scheme, for cooperative spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks. The SHC scheme deploys a cluster based network in which Likelihood Ratio Test (LRT)-based soft combination is applied at each cluster, and weighted decision fusion rule-based hard combination is utilized at the fusion center. The novelties of the SHC scheme are as follows: the structure of the SHC scheme reduces the complexity of cooperative detection which is an inherent limitation of soft combination schemes. By using the LRT, we can detect primary signals in a low signal-to-noise ratio regime (around an average of −15 dB). In addition, the computational complexity of the LRT is reduced since we derive the closed-form expression of the probability density function of LRT value. The SHC scheme also takes into account the different effects of large scale fading on different users in the wide area network. The simulation results show that the SHC scheme not only provides the better sensing performance compared to the conventional hard combination schemes, but also reduces sensing overhead in terms of reporting time compared to the conventional soft combination scheme using the LRT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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17 pages, 1230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High Resolution On-Chip Delay Sensor with Low Supply-Voltage Sensitivity for High-Performance Electronic Systems

by Duo Sheng^*, Hsiu-Fan Lai, Sheng-Min Chan and Min-Rong Hong

Department of Electrical Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei 24205, Taiwan

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4408-4424; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204408 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5812

Abstract

An all-digital on-chip delay sensor (OCDS) circuit with high delay-measurement resolution and low supply-voltage sensitivity for efficient detection and diagnosis in high-performance electronic system applications is presented. Based on the proposed delay measurement scheme, the quantization resolution of the proposed OCDS can be [...] Read more.

An all-digital on-chip delay sensor (OCDS) circuit with high delay-measurement resolution and low supply-voltage sensitivity for efficient detection and diagnosis in high-performance electronic system applications is presented. Based on the proposed delay measurement scheme, the quantization resolution of the proposed OCDS can be reduced to several picoseconds. Additionally, the proposed cascade-stage delay measurement circuit can enhance immunity to supply-voltage variations of the delay measurement resolution without extra self-biasing or calibration circuits. Simulation results show that the delay measurement resolution can be improved to 1.2 ps; the average delay resolution variation is 0.55% with supply-voltage variations of ±10%. Moreover, the proposed delay sensor can be implemented in an all-digital manner, making it very suitable for high-performance electronic system applications as well as system-level integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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5 pages, 688 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Tang, C. Y. and Chen, X.Y. A Class of Coning Algorithms Based on a Half-Compressed Structure. Sensors 2014, 14, 14289–14301

by Chuanye Tang and Xiyuan Chen^*

Key Laboratory of Micro-Inertial Instrument and Advanced Navigation Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Sipailou 2, Nanjing 210096, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4425-4429; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204425 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4896

Abstract

Due to an oversight by MDPI and the authors, the following numerical corrections were not made in the originally published article [1]. MDPI-Sensors and the authors would like to apologize for any inconvenience brought to the readers.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Gyroscopes and Navigation Systems)

40 pages, 1009 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mining Personal Data Using Smartphones and Wearable Devices: A Survey

by Muhammad Habib ur Rehman^*, Chee Sun Liew, Teh Ying Wah, Junaid Shuja and Babak Daghighi

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4430-4469; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204430 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 15832

Abstract

The staggering growth in smartphone and wearable device use has led to a massive scale generation of personal (user-specific) data. To explore, analyze, and extract useful information and knowledge from the deluge of personal data, one has to leverage these devices as the [...] Read more.

The staggering growth in smartphone and wearable device use has led to a massive scale generation of personal (user-specific) data. To explore, analyze, and extract useful information and knowledge from the deluge of personal data, one has to leverage these devices as the data-mining platforms in ubiquitous, pervasive, and big data environments. This study presents the personal ecosystem where all computational resources, communication facilities, storage and knowledge management systems are available in user proximity. An extensive review on recent literature has been conducted and a detailed taxonomy is presented. The performance evaluation metrics and their empirical evidences are sorted out in this paper. Finally, we have highlighted some future research directions and potentially emerging application areas for personal data mining using smartphones and wearable devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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26 pages, 1546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Architecture of a Service-Enabled Sensing Platform for the Environment

by Alexander Kotsev^1,*

, Francesco Pantisano^1,†, Sven Schade^1,†

and Simon Jirka^2,†

¹ Scientific/Technical Project Officer at European Commission-Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Digital Earth and Reference Data Unit. Via E. Fermi, Ispra 2749 I-21027, Italy

² North Initiative for Geospatial Open Source Software GmbH, Martin-Luther-King-Weg 24 48155 Münster, Germany

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4470-4495; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204470 - 13 Feb 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8841

Abstract

Recent technological advancements have led to the production of arrays of miniaturized sensors, often embedded in existing multitasking devices (e.g., smartphones, tablets) and using a wide range of radio standards (e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, 4G cellular networks). Altogether, these technological evolutions coupled with the [...] Read more.

Recent technological advancements have led to the production of arrays of miniaturized sensors, often embedded in existing multitasking devices (e.g., smartphones, tablets) and using a wide range of radio standards (e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, 4G cellular networks). Altogether, these technological evolutions coupled with the diffusion of ubiquitous Internet connectivity provide the base-line technology for the Internet of Things (IoT). The rapid increase of IoT devices is enabling the definition of new paradigms of data collection and introduces the concept of mobile crowd-sensing. In this respect, new sensing methodologies promise to extend the current understanding of the environment and social behaviors by leveraging citizen-contributed data for a wide range of applications. Environmental sensing can however only be successful if all the heterogeneous technologies and infrastructures work smoothly together. As a result, the interconnection and orchestration of devices is one of the central issues of the IoT paradigm. With this in mind, we propose an approach for improving the accessibility of observation data, based on interoperable standards and on-device web services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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17 pages, 563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Multispectral Imaging in Varietal Identification of Tomato

by Santosh Shrestha, Lise Christina Deleuran, Merete Halkjær Olesen and René Gislum^*

Department of Agroecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Slagelse 4200, Denmark

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4496-4512; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204496 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 8583

Abstract

Multispectral imaging is an emerging non-destructive technology. In this work its potential for varietal discrimination and identification of tomato cultivars of Nepal was investigated. Two sample sets were used for the study, one with two parents and their crosses and other with eleven [...] Read more.

Multispectral imaging is an emerging non-destructive technology. In this work its potential for varietal discrimination and identification of tomato cultivars of Nepal was investigated. Two sample sets were used for the study, one with two parents and their crosses and other with eleven cultivars to study parents and offspring relationship and varietal identification respectively. Normalized canonical discriminant analysis (nCDA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to analyze and compare the results for parents and offspring study. Both the results showed clear discrimination of parents and offspring. nCDA was also used for pairwise discrimination of the eleven cultivars, which correctly discriminated upto 100% and only few pairs below 85%. Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was further used to classify all the cultivars. The model displayed an overall classification accuracy of 82%, which was further improved to 96% and 86% with stepwise PLS-DA models on high (seven) and poor (four) sensitivity cultivars, respectively. The stepwise PLS-DA models had satisfactory classification errors for cross-validation and prediction 7% and 7%, respectively. The results obtained provide an opportunity of using multispectral imaging technology as a primary tool in a scientific community for identification/discrimination of plant varieties in regard to genetic purity and plant variety protection/registration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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37 pages, 1978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Simulation of Material-Integrated Distributed Sensor Processing with a Code-Based Agent Platform and Mobile Multi-Agent Systems

by Stefan Bosse

University of Bremen, Dept. of Mathematics & Computer Science, Robert Hooke Str. 5, 28359 Bremen, Germany

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4513-4549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204513 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8665

Abstract

Multi-agent systems (MAS) can be used for decentralized and self-organizing data processing in a distributed system, like a resource-constrained sensor network, enabling distributed information extraction, for example, based on pattern recognition and self-organization, by decomposing complex tasks in simpler cooperative agents. Reliable MAS-based [...] Read more.

Multi-agent systems (MAS) can be used for decentralized and self-organizing data processing in a distributed system, like a resource-constrained sensor network, enabling distributed information extraction, for example, based on pattern recognition and self-organization, by decomposing complex tasks in simpler cooperative agents. Reliable MAS-based data processing approaches can aid the material-integration of structural-monitoring applications, with agent processing platforms scaled to the microchip level. The agent behavior, based on a dynamic activity-transition graph (ATG) model, is implemented with program code storing the control and the data state of an agent, which is novel. The program code can be modified by the agent itself using code morphing techniques and is capable of migrating in the network between nodes. The program code is a self-contained unit (a container) and embeds the agent data, the initialization instructions and the ATG behavior implementation. The microchip agent processing platform used for the execution of the agent code is a standalone multi-core stack machine with a zero-operand instruction format, leading to a small-sized agent program code, low system complexity and high system performance. The agent processing is token-queue-based, similar to Petri-nets. The agent platform can be implemented in software, too, offering compatibility at the operational and code level, supporting agent processing in strong heterogeneous networks. In this work, the agent platform embedded in a large-scale distributed sensor network is simulated at the architectural level by using agent-based simulation techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 1st International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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14 pages, 2289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Strap Pressure Sensor System for Powered Exoskeletons

by Jesús Tamez-Duque¹, Rebeca Cobian-Ugalde¹, Atilla Kilicarslan², Anusha Venkatakrishnan², Rogelio Soto¹ and Jose Luis Contreras-Vidal^2,*

¹ National Robotics Laboratory, School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey N.L. 64849, Mexico

² Laboratory for Non-Invasive Brain-Machine Interface Systems, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77004, USA

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4550-4563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204550 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 11139

Abstract

Assistive and rehabilitative powered exoskeletons for spinal cord injury (SCI) and stroke subjects have recently reached the clinic. Proper tension and joint alignment are critical to ensuring safety. Challenges still exist in adjustment and fitting, with most current systems depending on personnel experience [...] Read more.

Assistive and rehabilitative powered exoskeletons for spinal cord injury (SCI) and stroke subjects have recently reached the clinic. Proper tension and joint alignment are critical to ensuring safety. Challenges still exist in adjustment and fitting, with most current systems depending on personnel experience for appropriate individual fastening. Paraplegia and tetraplegia patients using these devices have impaired sensation and cannot signal if straps are uncomfortable or painful. Excessive pressure and blood-flow restriction can lead to skin ulcers, necrotic tissue and infections. Tension must be just enough to prevent slipping and maintain posture. Research in pressure dynamics is extensive for wheelchairs and mattresses, but little research has been done on exoskeleton straps. We present a system to monitor pressure exerted by physical human-machine interfaces and provide data about levels of skin/body pressure in fastening straps. The system consists of sensing arrays, signal processing hardware with wireless transmission, and an interactive GUI. For validation, a lower-body powered exoskeleton carrying the full weight of users was used. Experimental trials were conducted with one SCI and one able-bodied subject. The system can help prevent skin injuries related to excessive pressure in mobility-impaired patients using powered exoskeletons, supporting functionality, independence and better overall quality of life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 1601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Instantaneous Low-Cost Point-of-Care Anemia Detection Device

by Jaime Punter-Villagrasa^1,*, Joan Cid², Cristina Páez-Avilés¹

, Ivón Rodríguez-Villarreal³, Esteve Juanola-Feliu¹, Jordi Colomer-Farrarons¹ and Pere Ll. Miribel-Català¹

¹ Department of Electronics, University of Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona 08028, Spain

² Department of Hemotherapy and Hemostasis, CDB, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clínic, Villarroel 170, Barcelona 08036, Spain

³ Centre de Recerca Matemàtica, Campus Bellaterra, UAB, Edifici C, Barcelona 08193, Spain

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4564-4577; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204564 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 10983

Abstract

We present a small, compact and portable device for point-of-care instantaneous early detection of anemia. The method used is based on direct hematocrit measurement from whole blood samples by means of impedance analysis. This device consists of a custom electronic instrumentation and a [...] Read more.

We present a small, compact and portable device for point-of-care instantaneous early detection of anemia. The method used is based on direct hematocrit measurement from whole blood samples by means of impedance analysis. This device consists of a custom electronic instrumentation and a plug-and-play disposable sensor. The designed electronics rely on straightforward standards for low power consumption, resulting in a robust and low consumption device making it completely mobile with a long battery life. Another approach could be powering the system based on other solutions like indoor solar cells, or applying energy-harvesting solutions in order to remove the batteries. The sensing system is based on a disposable low-cost label-free three gold electrode commercial sensor for 50 µL blood samples. The device capability for anemia detection has been validated through 24 blood samples, obtained from four hospitalized patients at Hospital Clínic. As a result, the response, effectiveness and robustness of the portable point-of-care device to detect anemia has been proved with an accuracy error of 2.83% and a mean coefficient of variation of 2.57% without any particular case above 5%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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14 pages, 913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online Sensor Fault Detection Based on an Improved Strong Tracking Filter

by Lijuan Wang^1,2,3, Lifeng Wu^1,2,3,*, Yong Guan^1,2,3 and Guohui Wang^1,2,3

¹ College of Information Engineering, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

² Beijing Engineering Research Center of High Reliable Embedded System, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

³ Beijing Key Laboratory of Electronic System Reliable Technology, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

Sensors 2015, 15(2), 4578-4591; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150204578 - 16 Feb 2015

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6789

Abstract

We propose a method for online sensor fault detection that is based on the evolving Strong Tracking Filter (STCKF). The cubature rule is used to estimate states to improve the accuracy of making estimates in a nonlinear case. A residual is the difference [...] Read more.

We propose a method for online sensor fault detection that is based on the evolving Strong Tracking Filter (STCKF). The cubature rule is used to estimate states to improve the accuracy of making estimates in a nonlinear case. A residual is the difference in value between an estimated value and the true value. A residual will be regarded as a signal that includes fault information. The threshold is set at a reasonable level, and will be compared with residuals to determine whether or not the sensor is faulty. The proposed method requires only a nominal plant model and uses STCKF to estimate the original state vector. The effectiveness of the algorithm is verified by simulation on a drum-boiler model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Sensors, Volume 15, Issue 2 (February 2015) – 125 articles , Pages 2232-4604

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