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Polymers
Volume 14
Issue 23
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Polymers, Volume 14, Issue 23 (December-1 2022) – 280 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Lignin is a natural polymer second only to cellulose among natural reserves, which is linked by chemical bonds such as carbon–carbon bonds and ether bonds. Degradation is one of the ways to achieve high value conversion of lignin, of which heating degradation of lignin with deep eutectic solvent (DES) is a good green degradation method. In this study, we used choline chloride as the hydrogen bond acceptor, and urea, ethylene glycol, glycerol, acetic acid, formic acid mixed acid, oxalic acid, and p-toluenesulfonic acid as the hydrogen bond donors to degrade lignin and evaluated the recovery of DES. View this paper
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10 pages, 2015 KiB  
Article
Relation of Chemical Composition and Colour of Spruce Wood
by Viera Kučerová, Richard Hrčka and Tatiana Hýrošová
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5333; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235333 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1855
Abstract
The visual inspection of fresh cut spruce wood (Picea abies, L. Karst.) showed the variability of its colour. Wood visual inspection is a part of wood quality assessment, for example, prior to or after its processing. The detail spruce wood colour [...] Read more.
The visual inspection of fresh cut spruce wood (Picea abies, L. Karst.) showed the variability of its colour. Wood visual inspection is a part of wood quality assessment, for example, prior to or after its processing. The detail spruce wood colour analysis was performed using spectrophotometric data. The colour was measured by the bench-top spectrophotometer CM-5 Konica Minolta. The spectrophotometer was calibrated with a built-in white standard and on air. The whole analysis was performed in an xy chromaticity diagram supplemented with coordinate Y and CIE L*a*b* colour spaces. The ratio of the white chromophore amount to the amount of all achromatic chromophores is related to the Y coordinate. The ratio of the chromatic chromophore amount to all chromophores amount is saturation. The constructed model of the spruce wood colour is composed of four chromophores. The white chromophore belongs to holocellulose. The black chromophore belongs to lignin. The saturation is influenced by two chromophores. One of them belongs to extractives, another to lignin. The amounts of chromophores correlated with the spruce wood chemical composition. The chemical composition was measured using the procedures of Seifert, Wise, Sluiter, and ASTM. Moreover, the wood colour is affected by the moisture content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable and Natural Polymers)
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18 pages, 3098 KiB  
Article
Molecular Dynamics and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies of Supercritical CO2 Sorption in Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)
by Valentina V. Sobornova, Konstantin V. Belov, Alexey A. Dyshin, Darya L. Gurina, Ilya A. Khodov and Michael G. Kiselev
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5332; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235332 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 16196
Abstract
The study of supercritical carbon dioxide sorption processes is an important and urgent task in the field of “green” chemistry and for the selection of conditions for new polymer material formation. However, at the moment, the research of these processes is very limited, [...] Read more.
The study of supercritical carbon dioxide sorption processes is an important and urgent task in the field of “green” chemistry and for the selection of conditions for new polymer material formation. However, at the moment, the research of these processes is very limited, and it is necessary to select the methodology for each polymer material separately. In this paper, the principal possibility to study the powder sorption processes using 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, relaxation-relaxation correlation spectroscopy and molecular dynamic modeling methods will be demonstrated based on the example of polymethylmethacrylate and supercritical carbon dioxide. It was found that in the first nanoseconds and seconds during the sorption process, most of the carbon dioxide, about 75%, is sorbed into polymethylmethacrylate, while on the clock scale the remaining 25% is sorbed. The methodology presented in this paper makes it possible to select optimal conditions for technological processes associated with the production of new polymer materials based on supercritical fluids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Simulation and Modeling of Polymers)
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11 pages, 4716 KiB  
Article
Phase Diagrams of Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly Are Largely Determined by Polymer Recombination
by Artem Petrov, Alexander V. Chertovich and Alexey A. Gavrilov
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5331; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235331 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1895
Abstract
In the current work, atom transfer radical polymerization-induced self-assembly (ATRP PISA) phase diagrams were obtained by the means of dissipative particle dynamics simulations. A fast algorithm for determining the equilibrium morphology of block copolymer aggregates was developed. Our goal was to assess how [...] Read more.
In the current work, atom transfer radical polymerization-induced self-assembly (ATRP PISA) phase diagrams were obtained by the means of dissipative particle dynamics simulations. A fast algorithm for determining the equilibrium morphology of block copolymer aggregates was developed. Our goal was to assess how the chemical nature of ATRP affects the self-assembly of diblock copolymers in the course of PISA. We discovered that the chain growth termination via recombination played a key role in determining the ATRP PISA phase diagrams. In particular, ATRP with turned off recombination yielded a PISA phase diagram very similar to that obtained for a simple ideal living polymerization process. However, an increase in the recombination probability led to a significant change of the phase diagram: the transition between cylindrical micelles and vesicles was strongly shifted, and a dependence of the aggregate morphology on the concentration was observed. We speculate that this effect occurred due to the simultaneous action of two factors: the triblock copolymer architecture of the terminated chains and the dispersity of the solvophobic blocks. We showed that these two factors affected the phase diagram weakly if they acted separately; however, their combination, which naturally occurs during ATRP, affected the ATRP PISA phase diagram strongly. We suggest that the recombination reaction is a key factor leading to the complexity of experimental PISA phase diagrams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Design and Synthesis of Polymers)
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10 pages, 2052 KiB  
Article
Dual Responsive Dependent Background Color Based on Thermochromic 1D Photonic Crystal Multilayer Films
by Yejin Kim, Seo Hyun Kim, Henok Getachew Girma, Seungju Jeon, Bogyu Lim and Seo-Hyun Jung
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5330; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235330 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2420
Abstract
In this paper, we present dual responsive one-dimensional (1D) photonic crystal (PC) multilayer films that utilize a high-humidity environment and temperature. Dual responsive 1D PC multilayer films are fabricated on precoated thermochromic film by sequential alternate layer deposition of photo-crosslinkable poly(2-vinylnaphthalene-co-benzophenone acrylate) (P(2VN-co-BPA)) [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present dual responsive one-dimensional (1D) photonic crystal (PC) multilayer films that utilize a high-humidity environment and temperature. Dual responsive 1D PC multilayer films are fabricated on precoated thermochromic film by sequential alternate layer deposition of photo-crosslinkable poly(2-vinylnaphthalene-co-benzophenone acrylate) (P(2VN-co-BPA)) as a high refractive index polymer, and poly(4-vinylpyrollidone-co-benzophenone acrylate) P(4VP-co-BPA) as a low refractive index polymer. The thermochromic film shows a vivid color transition from black to white at 28 °C. Three different colors of thermochromic 1D PC multilayer films are prepared by thickness modulation of P(4VP-co-BPA) layers, and the films on a black background exhibit visible spectrum color only in a high-humidity environment (over 90% relative humidity (RH)). For the three films placed on a hands display, three different composite colors are synthesized by the reflection of light, including yellow, magenta, and cyan, due to the changing of backgrounds from black to white with temperature. Additionally, the films show remarkable color transitions with reliable reversibility. The films can be applied as anti-counterfeiting labels and can be used for smart decoration films. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of dual response colorimetric films that change color in various ways depending on temperature and humidity changes, and we believe that it can be applied to various applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Polymer Membranes and Films)
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19 pages, 3180 KiB  
Article
Characteristics and Properties of Acid- and Pepsin-Solubilized Collagens from the Tail Tendon of Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis)
by Sagun Chanmangkang, Sutee Wangtueai, Nantipa Pansawat, Pramvadee Tepwong, Atikorn Panya and Jirawan Maneerote
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5329; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235329 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2986
Abstract
The tail tendons of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), a by-product from the meat-separation process in canned-tuna production, was used as an alternative source of collagen extraction. The acid-solubilized collagens using vinegar (VTC) and acetic-acid (ATC) extraction and pepsin-solubilized collagen (APTC) were [...] Read more.
The tail tendons of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), a by-product from the meat-separation process in canned-tuna production, was used as an alternative source of collagen extraction. The acid-solubilized collagens using vinegar (VTC) and acetic-acid (ATC) extraction and pepsin-solubilized collagen (APTC) were extracted from tuna-tail tendon. The physiochemical properties and characteristics of those collagens were investigated. The obtained yield of VTC, ATC, and APTC were 7.88 ± 0.41, 8.67 ± 0.35, and 12.04 ± 0.07%, respectively. The determination of protein-collagen solubility, the effect of pH and NaCl on collagen solubility, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectrum, and microstructure of the collagen-fibril surface using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) were done. The protein solubility of VTC, ATC, and APTC were 0.44 ± 0.03, 0.52 ± 0.07, and 0.67 ± 0.12 mg protein/mg collagen. The solubility of collagen decreased with increasing of NaCl content. These three collagens were good solubility at low pH with the highest solubility at pH 5. The FTIR spectrum showed absorbance of Amide A, Amide B, Amide I, Amide II, and Amide III groups as 3286–3293 cm−1, 2853–2922 cm−1, 1634–1646 cm−1, 1543–1544 cm−1, and 1236–1237 cm−1, respectively. The SEM analysis indicated a microstructure of collagen surface as folding of fibril with small pore. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable and Natural Polymers)
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23 pages, 5784 KiB  
Article
New Crosslinked Single-Ion Silica-PEO Hybrid Electrolytes
by Sébastien Issa, Roselyne Jeanne-Brou, Sumit Mehan, Didier Devaux, Fabrice Cousin, Didier Gigmes, Renaud Bouchet and Trang N. T. Phan
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5328; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235328 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2199
Abstract
New single-ion hybrid electrolytes have been synthetized via an original and simple synthetic approach combining Michael addition, epoxidation, and sol–gel polycondensation. We designed an organic PEO network as a matrix for the lithium transport, mechanically reinforced thanks to crosslinking inorganic (SiO1.5) [...] Read more.
New single-ion hybrid electrolytes have been synthetized via an original and simple synthetic approach combining Michael addition, epoxidation, and sol–gel polycondensation. We designed an organic PEO network as a matrix for the lithium transport, mechanically reinforced thanks to crosslinking inorganic (SiO1.5) sites, while highly delocalized anions based on lithium vinyl sulfonyl(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide (VSTFSILi) were grafted onto the inorganic sites to produce single-ion hybrid electrolytes (HySI). The influence of the electrolyte composition in terms of the inorganic/organic ratio and the grafted VSTFSILi content on the local structural organization, the thermal, mechanical, and ionic transport properties (ionic conductivity, transference number) are studied by a variety of techniques including SAXS, DSC, rheometry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. SAXS measurements at 25 °C and 60 °C reveal that HySI electrolyte films display locally a spatial phase separation with domains composed of PEO rich phase and silica/VSTFSILi clusters. The size of these clusters increases with the silica and VSTFSILi content. A maximum ionic conductivity of 2.1 × 10−5 S·cm−1 at 80 °C has been obtained with HySI having an EO/Li ratio of 20. The Li+ ion transfer number of HySI electrolytes is high, as expected for a single-ion electrolyte, and comprises between 0.80 and 0.92. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)
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15 pages, 9013 KiB  
Article
Polyacrylonitrile-Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Composite Gel-Polymer Electrolyte for All-Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Yer-Targyn Tleukenov, Gulnur Kalimuldina, Anar Arinova, Nurbolat Issatayev, Zhumabay Bakenov and Arailym Nurpeissova
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5327; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235327 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2792
Abstract
The three-dimensional (3D) structure of batteries nowadays obtains a lot of attention because it provides the electrodes a vast surface area to accommodate and employ more active material, resulting in a notable increase in areal capacity. However, the integration of polymer electrolytes to [...] Read more.
The three-dimensional (3D) structure of batteries nowadays obtains a lot of attention because it provides the electrodes a vast surface area to accommodate and employ more active material, resulting in a notable increase in areal capacity. However, the integration of polymer electrolytes to complicated three-dimensional structures without defects is appealing. This paper presents the creation of a flawless conformal coating for a distinctive 3D-structured NiO/Ni anode using a simple thermal oxidation technique and a polymer electrolyte consisting of three layers of PAN-(PAN-PVA)-PVA with the addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles as nanofillers. Such a composition with a unique combination of polymers demonstrated superior electrode performance. PAN in the polymer matrix provides mechanical stability and corrosion resistance, while PVA contributes to excellent ionic conductivity. As a result, NiO/Ni@PAN-(PAN-PVA)-PVA with 0.5 wt% Al2O3 NPs configuration demonstrated enhanced cycling stability and superior electrochemical performance, reaching 546 mAh g−1 at a 0.1 C rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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19 pages, 753 KiB  
Review
Prospects of Biogenic Xanthan and Gellan in Removal of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Waters
by Katarína Balíková, Bence Farkas, Peter Matúš and Martin Urík
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5326; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235326 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2332
Abstract
Biosorption is considered an effective technique for the treatment of heavy-metal-bearing wastewaters. In recent years, various biogenic products, including native and functionalized biopolymers, have been successfully employed in technologies aiming for the environmentally sustainable immobilization and removal of heavy metals at contaminated sites, [...] Read more.
Biosorption is considered an effective technique for the treatment of heavy-metal-bearing wastewaters. In recent years, various biogenic products, including native and functionalized biopolymers, have been successfully employed in technologies aiming for the environmentally sustainable immobilization and removal of heavy metals at contaminated sites, including two commercially available heteropolysaccharides—xanthan and gellan. As biodegradable and non-toxic fermentation products, xanthan and gellan have been successfully tested in various remediation techniques. Here, to highlight their prospects as green adsorbents for water decontamination, we have reviewed their biosynthesis machinery and chemical properties that are linked to their sorptive interactions, as well as their actual performance in the remediation of heavy metal contaminated waters. Their sorptive performance in native and modified forms is promising; thus, both xanthan and gellan are emerging as new green-based materials for the cost-effective and efficient remediation of heavy metal-contaminated waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Wastewater and Soil Treatment)
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16 pages, 3464 KiB  
Article
Material Extrusion of Helical Shape Memory Polymer Artificial Muscles for Human Space Exploration Apparatus
by Kellen Mitchell, Lily Raymond, Joshua Wood, Ji Su, Jun Zhang and Yifei Jin
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5325; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235325 - 6 Dec 2022
Viewed by 2135
Abstract
Astronauts suffer skeletal muscle atrophy in microgravity and/or zero-gravity environments. Artificial muscle-actuated exoskeletons can aid astronauts in physically strenuous situations to mitigate risk during spaceflight missions. Current artificial muscle fabrication methods are technically challenging to be performed during spaceflight. The objective of this [...] Read more.
Astronauts suffer skeletal muscle atrophy in microgravity and/or zero-gravity environments. Artificial muscle-actuated exoskeletons can aid astronauts in physically strenuous situations to mitigate risk during spaceflight missions. Current artificial muscle fabrication methods are technically challenging to be performed during spaceflight. The objective of this research is to unveil the effects of critical operating conditions on artificial muscle formation and geometry in a newly developed helical fiber extrusion method. It is found that the fiber outer diameter decreases and pitch increases when the printhead temperature increases, inlet pressure increases, or cooling fan speed decreases. Similarly, fiber thickness increases when the cooling fan speed decreases or printhead temperature increases. Extrusion conditions also affect surface morphology and mechanical properties. Particularly, extrusion conditions leading to an increased polymer temperature during extrusion can result in lower surface roughness and increased tensile strength and elastic modulus. The shape memory properties of an extruded fiber are demonstrated in this study to validate the ability of the fiber from shape memory polymer to act as an artificial muscle. The effects of the operating conditions are summarized into a phase diagram for selecting suitable parameters for fabricating helical artificial muscles with controllable geometries and excellent performance in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Additive Processes and 3D Printing for Polymer Composites)
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17 pages, 3517 KiB  
Article
Synergistic Enhancement of Flame Retardancy Behavior of Glass-Fiber Reinforced Polylactide Composites through Using Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants and Chain Modifiers
by Ceren Yargici Kovanci, Mohammadreza Nofar and Abbas Ghanbari
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5324; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235324 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2395
Abstract
Flame retardancy properties of neat PLA can be improved with different phosphorus-based flame retardants (FRs), however, developing flame retardant PLA-based engineering composites with maintained mechanical performance is still a challenge. This study proposes symbiosis approaches to enhance the flame retardancy behavior of polylactide [...] Read more.
Flame retardancy properties of neat PLA can be improved with different phosphorus-based flame retardants (FRs), however, developing flame retardant PLA-based engineering composites with maintained mechanical performance is still a challenge. This study proposes symbiosis approaches to enhance the flame retardancy behavior of polylactide (PLA) composites with 20 wt% short glass fibers (GF). This was first implemented by exploring the effects of various phosphorus-based FRs up to 5 wt% in neat PLA samples. Among the used phosphorus-based FRs, the use of only 3 wt% of diphosphoric acid-based FR (P/N), melamine coated ammonium polyphosphate (APPcoated), and APP with melamine synergist (APP/Mel) resulted in achieving the V0 value in a vertical burning test in the neat PLA samples. In addition to their superior efficiency in improving the flame retardancy of neat PLA, P/N had the least negative effect on the final mechanical performance of PLA samples. When incorporated in PLA composites with 20 wt% GF, however, even with the use of 30 wt% P/N, the V0 value could not be obtained due to the candlewick effect. To resolve this issue, the synergistic effect of P/N and aromatic polycarbodiimide (PCDI) cross-linker or Joncryl epoxy-based chain-extender (CE) on the flame retardancy characteristics of composites was examined. Due to the further chain modification, which also enhances the melt strength of PLA, the dripping of composites in the vertical burning test terminated and the V0 value could be reached when using only 1 wt% PCDI or CE. According to the scanning electron microscopic analysis, the use of noted chain modifiers further homogenized the distribution and refined the particle size of P/N within the PLA matrix. Hence this could synergistically contribute to the enhancements of the fire resistance performance of the PLA composites. Such incorporation of P/N and chain modifiers further leads to the enhancement of the mechanical performance of PLA composites and hence the resultant product can be proposed as a promising durable bioplastic engineering product where fire risk exists. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Polymer-Based Flame Retardant Materials)
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19 pages, 6543 KiB  
Article
Enhancement of Mechanical Properties and Bonding Properties of Flake-Zinc-Powder-Modified Epoxy Resin Composites
by Xu Luo, Yu Li, Shuaijie Li and Xin Liu
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5323; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235323 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2043
Abstract
As a typical brittle material, epoxy resin cannot meet its application requirements in specific fields by only considering a single toughening method. In this paper, the effects of carboxyl-terminated polybutylene adipate (CTPBA) and zinc powder on the mechanical properties, adhesion properties, thermodynamic properties [...] Read more.
As a typical brittle material, epoxy resin cannot meet its application requirements in specific fields by only considering a single toughening method. In this paper, the effects of carboxyl-terminated polybutylene adipate (CTPBA) and zinc powder on the mechanical properties, adhesion properties, thermodynamic properties and medium resistance of epoxy resin were studied. A silane coupling agent (KH-550) was used to modify zinc powder. It was found that KH-550 could significantly improve the mechanical properties and bonding properties of epoxy resin, and the modification effect of flake zinc powder (f-Zn) was significantly better than that of spherical zinc powder (s-Zn). When the addition amount of f-Zn was 5 phr, the tensile shear strength and peel strength of the composites reached a maximum value of 13.16 MPa and 0.124 kN/m, respectively, which were 15.95% and 55% higher than those without filler. The tensile strength and impact strength reached a maximum value of 43.09 MPa and 7.09 kJ/m2, respectively, which were 40.54% and 91.11% higher than those without filler. This study provides scientific support for the preparation of f-Zn-modified epoxy resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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15 pages, 3292 KiB  
Article
Curing Kinetics of Bioderived Furan-Based Epoxy Resins: Study on the Effect of the Epoxy Monomer/Hardener Ratio
by Angela Marotta, Noemi Faggio and Cosimo Brondi
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5322; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235322 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2167
Abstract
The potential of furan-based epoxy thermosets as a greener alternative to diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A (DGEBA)-based resins has been demonstrated in recent literature. Therefore, a deep investigation of the curing behaviour of these systems may allow their use for industrial applications. In [...] Read more.
The potential of furan-based epoxy thermosets as a greener alternative to diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A (DGEBA)-based resins has been demonstrated in recent literature. Therefore, a deep investigation of the curing behaviour of these systems may allow their use for industrial applications. In this work, the curing mechanism of 2,5-bis[(oxiran-2-ylmethoxy)methyl]furan (BOMF) with methyl nadic anhydride (MNA) in the presence of 2-methylimidazole as a catalyst is analyzed. In particular, three systems characterized by different epoxy/anhydride molar ratios are investigated. The curing kinetics are studied through differential scanning calorimetry, both in isothermal and non-isothermal modes. The total heat of reaction of the epoxy resin as well as its activation energy are estimated by the non-isothermal measurements, while the fitting of isothermal data with Kamal’s autocatalytic model provides the kinetic parameters. The results are discussed as a function of the resin composition. The global activation energy for the curing process of BOMF/MNA resins is in the range 72–79 kJ/mol, depending on both the model used and the sample composition; higher values are experienced by the system with balanced stoichiometry. By the fitting of the isothermal analysis, it emerged that the order of reaction is not only dependent on the temperature, but also on the composition, even though the values range between 0.31 and 1.24. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers' Application and Technology for Better Quality of Life)
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37 pages, 8946 KiB  
Review
Advanced Optical Wavefront Technologies to Improve Patient Quality of Vision and Meet Clinical Requests
by Martina Vacalebre, Renato Frison, Carmelo Corsaro, Fortunato Neri, Sabrina Conoci, Elena Anastasi, Maria Cristina Curatolo and Enza Fazio
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5321; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235321 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4207
Abstract
Adaptive optics (AO) is employed for the continuous measurement and correction of ocular aberrations. Human eye refractive errors (lower-order aberrations such as myopia and astigmatism) are corrected with contact lenses and excimer laser surgery. Under twilight vision conditions, when the pupil of the [...] Read more.
Adaptive optics (AO) is employed for the continuous measurement and correction of ocular aberrations. Human eye refractive errors (lower-order aberrations such as myopia and astigmatism) are corrected with contact lenses and excimer laser surgery. Under twilight vision conditions, when the pupil of the human eye dilates to 5–7 mm in diameter, higher-order aberrations affect the visual acuity. The combined use of wavefront (WF) technology and AO systems allows the pre-operative evaluation of refractive surgical procedures to compensate for the higher-order optical aberrations of the human eye, guiding the surgeon in choosing the procedure parameters. Here, we report a brief history of AO, starting from the description of the Shack–Hartmann method, which allowed the first in vivo measurement of the eye’s wave aberration, the wavefront sensing technologies (WSTs), and their principles. Then, the limitations of the ocular wavefront ascribed to the IOL polymeric materials and design, as well as future perspectives on improving patient vision quality and meeting clinical requests, are described. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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16 pages, 6533 KiB  
Article
Structure and Properties of Epoxy Polysulfone Systems Modified with an Active Diluent
by Tuyara V. Petrova, Ilya V. Tretyakov, Alexey V. Kireynov, Alexey V. Shapagin, Nikita Yu. Budylin, Olga V. Alexeeva, Betal Z. Beshtoev, Vitaliy I. Solodilov, Gleb Yu. Yurkov and Alexander Al. Berlin
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5320; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235320 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2018
Abstract
An epoxy resin modified with polysulfone (PSU) and active diluent furfuryl glycidyl ether (FGE) was studied. Triethanolaminotitanate (TEAT) and iso-methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride (iso-MTHPA) were used as curing agents. It is shown that during the curing of initially homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous structures are formed. The [...] Read more.
An epoxy resin modified with polysulfone (PSU) and active diluent furfuryl glycidyl ether (FGE) was studied. Triethanolaminotitanate (TEAT) and iso-methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride (iso-MTHPA) were used as curing agents. It is shown that during the curing of initially homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous structures are formed. The type of these structures depends on the concentration of active diluent and the type of hardener. The physico-mechanical properties of the hybrid matrices are determined by the structure formed. The maximum resistance to a growing crack is provided by structures with a thermoplastic-enriched matrix-interpenetrating structures. The main mechanism for increasing the energy of crack propagation is associated with the implementation of microplasticity of extended phases enriched in polysulfone and their involvement in the fracture process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Properties of Polymers)
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11 pages, 1882 KiB  
Review
Strategies for Improved Wettability of Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Polymers by Non-Equilibrium Plasma Treatment
by Gregor Primc
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5319; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235319 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3810
Abstract
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is the material of choice in several applications ranging from the automotive industry to medicine, but the surface properties are usually not adequate. A standard method for tailoring surface properties is the application of gaseous plasma. The surface finish depends enormously [...] Read more.
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is the material of choice in several applications ranging from the automotive industry to medicine, but the surface properties are usually not adequate. A standard method for tailoring surface properties is the application of gaseous plasma. The surface finish depends enormously on the processing parameters. This article presents a review of strategies adapted for improved wettability and adhesion of PEEK. The kinetics of positively charged ions, neutral reactive plasma species, and vacuum ultraviolet radiation on the surface finish are analyzed, and synergies are stressed where appropriate. The reviewed articles are critically assessed regarding the plasma and surface kinetics, and the surface mechanisms are illustrated. The directions for obtaining optimal surface finish are provided together with the scientific explanation of the limitations of various approaches. Super-hydrophilic surface finish is achievable by treatment with a large dose of vacuum ultraviolet radiation in the presence of oxidizing gas. Bombardment with positively charged ions of kinetic energy between about 100 and 1000 eV also enable high wettability, but one should be aware of excessive heating when using the ions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plasma Processes for Polymers II)
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16 pages, 3097 KiB  
Article
Penetration Routes of Oxygen and Moisture into the Insulation of FR-EPDM Cables for Nuclear Power Plants
by Yoshimichi Ohki, Naoshi Hirai and Sohei Okada
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5318; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235318 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1821
Abstract
The polymeric insulation used in nuclear power plants (NPPs) carries the risk of molecular breakage due to oxidation and hydrolysis in the event of an accident. With this in mind, tubular specimens of flame-retardant ethylene-propylene-diene rubber (FR-EPDM) insulation were obtained by taking conductors [...] Read more.
The polymeric insulation used in nuclear power plants (NPPs) carries the risk of molecular breakage due to oxidation and hydrolysis in the event of an accident. With this in mind, tubular specimens of flame-retardant ethylene-propylene-diene rubber (FR-EPDM) insulation were obtained by taking conductors out of a cable harvested from an NPP. Similar tubular specimens were made from a newly manufactured cable and those aged artificially using a method called the “superposition of time-dependent data.” The inner and outer surfaces of each tubular specimen were subjected to various instrumental analyses to examine their oxidation, moisture uptake, and cross-linking. As a result, it has become clear that oxygen penetrates the cable through gaps between the twisted conductor strands. Meanwhile, water vapor diffuses more often through the sheath than through gaps between the conductor strands. Of the two methods used to simulate design-based accidents in NPPs, the one used to simulate the designed loss-of-coolant accident is more severe to FR-EPDM than the one used to simulate the designed severe accident. In addition, the validity of the method called the “superposition of time-dependent data,” which is used to give artificial aging treatments to cable samples, was confirmed. Measurements of spin-spin relaxation time and residual dipolar coupling using time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance were found suitable to use to obtain information on the cross-linking of FR-EPDM insulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Polymers for Electrical Systems)
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17 pages, 11376 KiB  
Article
Antibacterial Activity and Biocompatibility with the Concentration of Ginger Fraction in Biodegradable Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA) Hydrogel Coating for Medical Implants
by Seo-young Kim, Ae-jin Choi, Jung-Eun Park, Yong-seok Jang and Min-ho Lee
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5317; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235317 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
The gingerols and shogaols derived from ginger have excellent antibacterial properties against oral bacteria. However, some researchers have noted their dose-dependent potential toxicity. The aim of this study was to enhance the biofunctionality and biocompatibility of the application of ginger to dental titanium [...] Read more.
The gingerols and shogaols derived from ginger have excellent antibacterial properties against oral bacteria. However, some researchers have noted their dose-dependent potential toxicity. The aim of this study was to enhance the biofunctionality and biocompatibility of the application of ginger to dental titanium screws. To increase the amount of coating of the n-hexane-fractionated ginger on the titanium surface and to control its release, ginger was loaded in different concentrations in a photo-crosslinkable GelMA hydrogel. To improve coating stability of the ginger hydrogel (GH), the wettability of the surface was modified by pre-calcification (TNC), then GH was applied on the surface. As a result, the ginger fraction, with a high content of phenolic compounds, was effective in the inhibition of the growth of S. mutans and P. gingivalis. The GH slowly released the main compounds of ginger and showed excellent antibacterial effects with the concentration. Although bone regeneration was slightly reduced with the ginger-loading concentration due to the increased contents of polyphenolic compounds, it was strongly supplemented through the promotion of osteosis formation by the hydrogel and TNC coating. Finally, we proved the biosafety and superior biofunctionalities the GH−TNC coating on a Ti implant. However, it is recommended to use an appropriate concentration, because an excessive concentration of ginger may affect the improved biocompatibility in clinical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Biomaterials)
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15 pages, 3405 KiB  
Article
High Multi-Environmental Mechanical Stability and Adhesive Transparent Ionic Conductive Hydrogels Used as Smart Wearable Devices
by Yuxuan Wu, Jing Liu, Zhen Chen, Yujie Chen, Wenzheng Chen, Hua Li and Hezhou Liu
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5316; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235316 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2146
Abstract
Ionic conductive hydrogels used as flexible wearable sensor devices have attracted considerable attention because of their easy preparation, biocompatibility, and macro/micro mechanosensitive properties. However, developing an integrated conductive hydrogel that combines high mechanical stability, strong adhesion, and excellent mechanosensitive properties to meet practical [...] Read more.
Ionic conductive hydrogels used as flexible wearable sensor devices have attracted considerable attention because of their easy preparation, biocompatibility, and macro/micro mechanosensitive properties. However, developing an integrated conductive hydrogel that combines high mechanical stability, strong adhesion, and excellent mechanosensitive properties to meet practical requirements remains a great challenge owing to the incompatibility of properties. Herein, we prepare a multifunctional ionic conductive hydrogel by introducing high-modulus bacterial cellulose (BC) to form the skeleton of double networks, which exhibit great mechanical properties in both tensile (83.4 kPa, 1235.9% strain) and compressive (207.2 kPa, 79.9% strain) stress–strain tests. Besides, the fabricated hydrogels containing high-concentration Ca2+ show excellent anti-freezing (high ionic conductivities of 1.92 and 0.36 S/m at room temperature and −35 ∘C, respectively) properties. Furthermore, the sensing mechanism based on the conductive units and applied voltage are investigated to the benefit of the practical applications of prepared hydrogels. Therefore, the designed and fabricated hydrogels provide a novel strategy and can serve as candidates in the fields of sensors, ionic skins, and soft robots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Based Electronic Devices and Sensors II)
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14 pages, 2951 KiB  
Article
Novel Non-Viral Vectors Based on Pluronic® F68PEI with Application in Oncology Field
by Inês Silva, Cátia Domingues, Ivana Jarak, Rui A. Carvalho, Rosemeyre A. Cordeiro, Marília Dourado, Francisco Veiga, Henrique Faneca and Ana Figueiras
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5315; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235315 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2115
Abstract
Copolymers composed of low-molecular-weight polyethylenimine (PEI) and amphiphilic Pluronics® are safe and efficient non-viral vectors for pDNA transfection. A variety of Pluronic® properties provides a base for tailoring transfection efficacy in combination with the unique biological activity of this polymer group. [...] Read more.
Copolymers composed of low-molecular-weight polyethylenimine (PEI) and amphiphilic Pluronics® are safe and efficient non-viral vectors for pDNA transfection. A variety of Pluronic® properties provides a base for tailoring transfection efficacy in combination with the unique biological activity of this polymer group. In this study, we describe the preparation of new copolymers based on hydrophilic Pluronic® F68 and PEI (F68PEI). F68PEI polyplexes obtained by doping with free F68 (1:2 and 1:5 w/w) allowed for fine-tuning of physicochemical properties and transfection activity, demonstrating improved in vitro transfection of the human bone osteosarcoma epithelial (U2OS) and oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC-9) cells when compared to the parent formulation, F68PEI. Although all tested systems condensed pDNA at varying polymer/DNA charge ratios (N/P, 5/1–100/1), the addition of free F68 (1:5 w/w) resulted in the formation of smaller polyplexes (<200 nm). Analysis of polyplex properties by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering revealed varied polyplex morphology. Transfection potential was also found to be cell-dependent and significantly higher in SCC-9 cells compared to the control bPEI25k cells, as especially evident at higher N/P ratios (>25). The observed selectivity towards transfection of SSC-9 cells might represent a base for further optimization of a cell-specific transfection vehicle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polymers as Nanovehicles for Several Therapeutic Applications: Current Advances and Future Perspectives)
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18 pages, 7005 KiB  
Article
Facile Fabrication of Superhydrophobic and Flame-Retardant Coatings on Cotton Fabrics
by Shiwei Li, Luyan Yu, Jianhua Xiong, Ying Xiong, Shuguang Bi and Heng Quan
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5314; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235314 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2747
Abstract
The hydrophilicity and inherent flammability of cotton textiles severely limit their usage. To solve these drawbacks, a superhydrophobic and flame-retardant (SFR) coating made of chitosan (CH), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), and TiO2-SiO2-HMDS composite was applied to cotton fabric using simple [...] Read more.
The hydrophilicity and inherent flammability of cotton textiles severely limit their usage. To solve these drawbacks, a superhydrophobic and flame-retardant (SFR) coating made of chitosan (CH), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), and TiO2-SiO2-HMDS composite was applied to cotton fabric using simple layer-by-layer assembly and dip-coating procedures. First, the fabric was alternately immersed in CH and APP water dispersions, and then immersed in TiO2-SiO2-HMDS composite to form a CH/APP@TiO2-SiO2-HMDS coating on the cotton fabric surface. SEM, EDS, and FTIR were used to analyze the surface morphology, element composition, and functional groups of the cotton fabric, respectively. Vertical burning tests, microscale combustion calorimeter tests, and thermogravimetric analyses were used to evaluate the flammability, combustion behavior, thermal degradation characteristics, and flame-retardant mechanism of this system. When compared to the pristine cotton sample, the deposition of CH and APP enhanced the flame retardancy, residual char, heat release rate, and total heat release of the cotton textiles. The superhydrophobic test results showed that the maximal contact angle of SFR cotton fabric was 153.7°, and possessed excellent superhydrophobicity. Meanwhile, the superhydrophobicity is not lost after 10 laundering cycles or 50 friction cycles. In addition, the UPF value of CH/APP@TiO2-SiO2-HMDS cotton was 825.81, demonstrating excellent UV-shielding properties. Such a durable SFR fabric with a facile fabrication process exhibits potential applications for both oil/water separation and flame retardancy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Polymer Materials)
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16 pages, 6954 KiB  
Article
Modelling of Web-Crippling Behavior of Pultruded GFRP I Sections at Elevated Temperatures
by Lingfeng Zhang, Qianyi Li, Ying Long, Dafu Cao and Kai Guo
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5313; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235313 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1424
Abstract
The concentrated transverse load may lead to the web crippling of pultruded GFRP sections due to the lower transverse mechanical properties. Several investigations have been conducted on the web-crippling behavior of the GFRP sections under room temperature. However, the web-crippling behavior is not [...] Read more.
The concentrated transverse load may lead to the web crippling of pultruded GFRP sections due to the lower transverse mechanical properties. Several investigations have been conducted on the web-crippling behavior of the GFRP sections under room temperature. However, the web-crippling behavior is not yet understood when subjected to elevated temperatures. To address this issue, a finite element model considering the temperature-dependent material properties, Hashin failure criterion and the damage evolution law are successfully developed to simulate the web-crippling behavior of the GFRP I sections under elevated temperatures. The numerical model was validated by the web-crippling experiments at room temperature with the end-two-flange (ETF) and end bearing with ground support (EG) loading configurations. The developed model can accurately predict the ultimate loads and failure modes. Moreover, it was found that the initial damage was triggered by exceeding the shear strength at the web-flange junction near the corner of the bearing plate and independent of the elevated temperatures and loading configurations. The ultimate load and stiffness decreased obviously with the increasing temperature. At 220 °C, the ultimate load of specimens under ETF and EG loading configurations significantly decreased by 57% and 62%, respectively, whereas the elastic stiffness obviously reduced by 87% and 88%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composite II)
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11 pages, 3755 KiB  
Article
Self-Powered Gradient Hydrogel Sensor with the Temperature-Triggered Reversible Adhension
by Dong Sun, Cun Peng, Yuan Tang, Pengfei Qi, Wenxin Fan, Qiang Xu and Kunyan Sui
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5312; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235312 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2076
Abstract
The skin, as the largest organ of human body, can use ions as information carriers to convert multiple external stimuli into biological potential signals. So far, artificial skin that can imitate the functionality of human skin has been extensively investigated. However, the demand [...] Read more.
The skin, as the largest organ of human body, can use ions as information carriers to convert multiple external stimuli into biological potential signals. So far, artificial skin that can imitate the functionality of human skin has been extensively investigated. However, the demand for additional power, non-reusability and serious damage to the skin greatly limits applications. Here, we have developed a self-powered gradient hydrogel which has high temperature-triggered adhesion and room temperature-triggered easy separation characteristics. The self-powered gradient hydrogels are polymerized using 2-(dimethylamino) ethyl metharcylate (DMAEMA) and N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) under unilateral UV irradiation. The prepared hydrogels achieve good adhesion at high temperature and detachment at a low temperature. In addition, according to the thickness-dependent potential of the gradient hydrogel, the hydrogels can also sense pressure changes. This strategy can inspire the design and manufacture of self-powered gradient hydrogel sensors, contributing to the development of complex intelligent artificial skin sensing systems in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Trends in Polymer Membranes: Fabrication Technique, Characterization, Functionalization, and Applications in Environmental Science)
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16 pages, 4922 KiB  
Article
Structural Characterization and Glycosaminoglycan Impurities Analysis of Chondroitin Sulfate from Chinese Sturgeon
by Mei Zhao, Yong Qin, Ying Fan, Xu Wang, Haixin Yi, Xiaoyu Cui, Fuchuan Li and Wenshuang Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5311; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235311 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2083
Abstract
Chinese sturgeon was an endangered cartilaginous fish. The success of artificial breeding has promoted it to a food fish and it is now beginning to provide a new source of cartilage for the extraction of chondroitin sulfate (CS). However, the structural characteristics of [...] Read more.
Chinese sturgeon was an endangered cartilaginous fish. The success of artificial breeding has promoted it to a food fish and it is now beginning to provide a new source of cartilage for the extraction of chondroitin sulfate (CS). However, the structural characteristics of sturgeon CS from different tissues remain to be determined in more detail. In this study, CSs from the head, backbone, and fin cartilage of Chinese sturgeon were individually purified and characterized for the first time. The molecular weights, disaccharide compositions, and oligosaccharide sulfation patterns of these CSs are significantly different. Fin CS (SFCS), rich in GlcUAα1-3GalNAc(4S), has the biggest molecular weight (26.5 kDa). In contrast, head CS (SHCS) has a molecular weight of 21.0 kDa and is rich in GlcUAα1-3GalNAc(6S). Most features of backbone CS (SBCS) are between the former two. Other glycosaminoglycan impurities in these three sturgeon-derived CSs were lower than those in other common commercial CSs. All three CSs have no effect on the activity of thrombin or Factor Xa in the presence of antithrombin III. Hence, Chinese sturgeon cartilage is a potential source for the preparation of CSs with different features for food and pharmaceutical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased and Biodegradable Polymer Blends and Composites)
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16 pages, 2719 KiB  
Article
Biobased Castor Oil-Based Polyurethane Foams Grafted with Octadecylsilane-Modified Diatomite for Use as Eco-Friendly and Low-Cost Sorbents for Crude Oil Clean-Up Applications
by Helanka J. Perera, Anjali Goyal, Saeed M. Alhassan and Hussain Banu
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5310; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235310 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2946
Abstract
Herein we report the synthesis and characterization of novel castor oil-based polyurethane (PU) foam functionalized with octadecyltrichlorosilane (C18)-modified diatomaceous earth (DE) particles, exhibiting superior hydrophobicity and oil adsorption, and poor water absorption, for use in effective clean-up of crude oil spillage in water [...] Read more.
Herein we report the synthesis and characterization of novel castor oil-based polyurethane (PU) foam functionalized with octadecyltrichlorosilane (C18)-modified diatomaceous earth (DE) particles, exhibiting superior hydrophobicity and oil adsorption, and poor water absorption, for use in effective clean-up of crude oil spillage in water bodies. High-performance and low-cost sorbents have a tremendous attraction in oil spill clean-up applications. Recent studies have focused on the use of castor oil as a significant polyol that can be used as a biodegradable and eco-friendly raw material for the synthesis of PU. However, biobased in-house synthesis of foam modified with C18-DE particles has not yet been reported. This study involves the synthesis of PU using castor oil, further modification of castor oil-based PU using C18 silane, characterization studies and elucidation of oil adsorption capacity. The FTIR analysis confirmed the fusion of C18 silane particles inside the PU skeleton by adding the new functional group, and the XRD study signified the inclusion of crystalline peaks in amorphous pristine PU foam owing to the silane cross-link structure. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated improvement in thermal stability and high residual content after chemical modification with alkyl chain moieties. The SEM and EDX analyses showed the surface’s roughness and the incorporation of inorganic and organic elements into pristine PU foam. The contact angle analysis showed increased hydrophobicity of the modified PU foams treated with C18-DE particles. The oil absorption studies showed that the C18-DE-modified PU foam, in comparison with the unmodified one, exhibited a 2.91-fold increase in the oil adsorption capacity and a 3.44-fold decrease in the water absorbing nature. From these studies, it is understood that this novel foam can be considered as a potential candidate for cleaning up oil spillage on water bodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Foam and Composite Materials)
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17 pages, 4146 KiB  
Article
Study on the Relationship between Textile Microplastics Shedding and Fabric Structure
by Hong Cui and Changquan Xu
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5309; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235309 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3682
Abstract
Microplastics refer to plastic fibers, particles or films less than 5 mm in diameter. Textile microplastics are an important form of microplastics, which can harm the ecological environment and human health. This paper studies the relationship between textile microplastic shedding and fabric structure [...] Read more.
Microplastics refer to plastic fibers, particles or films less than 5 mm in diameter. Textile microplastics are an important form of microplastics, which can harm the ecological environment and human health. This paper studies the relationship between textile microplastic shedding and fabric structure to reduce microplastics pollution and reduce its impact on humans and the natural environment. Firstly, household washing is simulated by considering the main fabric type, the number of steel balls used in the washing, washing temperature, washing time and other influencing factors. An orthogonal test of the mixing level of the four factors is designed by selecting the fabric type, the number of steel balls used in washing, washing temperature and washing time, and the influencing factors is analyzed, and the best washing scheme is obtained. Then, under optimal washing conditions, the three factors and three levels of orthogonal test are designed to analyze the influence of fabric structure and external factors on the shedding of microplastics by changing the amounts of friction and insolation time. The results show that the microplastics released by knitted fabrics are significantly more under the same washing conditions than that of woven fabrics. Satin fabrics released the most microplastics and plain fabrics the least. In addition, among the external factors, the amount of friction significantly affects the production of microplastics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Textile Materials and Textile Design)
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10 pages, 2767 KiB  
Article
Hemp Shives as a Raw Material for the Production of Particleboards
by Radosław Auriga, Marta Pędzik, Robert Mrozowski and Tomasz Rogoziński
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5308; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235308 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3844
Abstract
Increased demand for wood affects its price and thus contributes to the growing interest in raw materials that can be used as a partial or total substitute for wood in the production of particleboard. One of the raw materials for the production of [...] Read more.
Increased demand for wood affects its price and thus contributes to the growing interest in raw materials that can be used as a partial or total substitute for wood in the production of particleboard. One of the raw materials for the production of particleboard can be Cannabis sativa or, more precisely, hemp shives. In this work, 7 variants of panels with a density of 650 kg/m3 with 10 and 25% hemp shives substitution in different layers were produced. Particleboards containing hemp shives were characterized by lower density compared to conventional particleboards. The shares of hemp shives at the levels of 10% and 25% have a slight impact on the MOR and MOE; additional IB showed no statistically significant differences between the conventional particleboards and particleboards with a share of hemp shives. For particleboards with 25% hemp shives, a reduction in swelling was observed relative to particleboards made entirely of industrial wood particles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
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12 pages, 11669 KiB  
Article
Liquid Fraction Effect on Foam Flow through a Local Obstacle
by Oksana Stennikova, Natalia Shmakova, Jean-Bastien Carrat and Evgeny Ermanyuk
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5307; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235307 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2451
Abstract
An experimental study of quasi-two-dimensional liquid foams with varying liquid fractions is presented. Experiments are conducted in a Hele-Shaw cell with a local permeable obstacle placed in the center and filling 35, 60 and 78% of the cell gap. Foam velocity is calculated [...] Read more.
An experimental study of quasi-two-dimensional liquid foams with varying liquid fractions is presented. Experiments are conducted in a Hele-Shaw cell with a local permeable obstacle placed in the center and filling 35, 60 and 78% of the cell gap. Foam velocity is calculated using a standard cross-correlation algorithm. Estimations of the liquid fraction of the foam are performed using a new simplified method based on a statistical analysis of foam cell structures. The pattern of the foam velocity field varies with increasing liquid fraction, responsible for significant variation of the foam’s rheology. The local permeability decreases with increasing obstacle height and liquid fraction. In case of high liquid fraction (5.8×10−2), the permeability coefficient tends to zero for obstacles filling more than 78% of the cell gap. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Theory and Simulation)
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19 pages, 2929 KiB  
Article
Production of 3D Printed Bi-Layer and Tri-Layer Sandwich Scaffolds with Polycaprolactone and Poly (vinyl alcohol)-Metformin towards Diabetic Wound Healing
by Sena Harmanci, Abir Dutta, Sumeyye Cesur, Ali Sahin, Oguzhan Gunduz, Deepak M. Kalaskar and Cem Bulent Ustundag
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5306; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235306 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3756
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic disease characterized by impaired insulin secretion, sensitivity, and hyperglycemia. Diabetic wounds are one of the significant complications of T2DM owing to its difficulty in normal healing, resulting in chronic wounds. In the present work, PCL/PVA, [...] Read more.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic disease characterized by impaired insulin secretion, sensitivity, and hyperglycemia. Diabetic wounds are one of the significant complications of T2DM owing to its difficulty in normal healing, resulting in chronic wounds. In the present work, PCL/PVA, PCL/PVA/PCL, and metformin-loaded, PCL/PVA-Met and PCL/PVA-Met/PCL hybrid scaffolds with different designs were fabricated using 3D printing. The porosity and morphological analysis of 3D-printed scaffolds were performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The scaffolds’ average pore sizes were between 63.6 ± 4.0 and 112.9 ± 3.0 μm. Molecular and chemical interactions between polymers and the drug were investigated with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Mechanical, thermal, and degradation analysis of the scaffolds were undertaken to investigate the physico-chemical characteristics of the scaffolds. Owing to the structure, PCL/PVA/PCL sandwich scaffolds had lower degradation rates than the bi-layer scaffolds. The drug release of the metformin-loaded scaffolds was evaluated with UV spectrometry, and the biocompatibility of the scaffolds on fibroblast cells was determined by cell culture analysis. The drug release in the PCL/PVA-Met scaffold was sustained till six days, whereas in the PCL/PVA-Met/PCL, it continued for 31 days. In the study of drug release kinetics, PCL/PVA-Met and PCL/PVA-Met/PCL scaffolds showed the highest correlation coefficients (R2) values for the first-order release model at 0.8735 and 0.889, respectively. Since the layered structures in the literature are mainly obtained with the electrospun fiber structures, these biocompatible sandwich scaffolds, produced for the first time with 3D-printing technology, may offer an alternative to existing drug delivery systems and may be a promising candidate for enhancing diabetic wound healing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing of Polymer Composites)
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13 pages, 2661 KiB  
Article
Polyurethane Adhesives Based on Oxyalkylated Kraft Lignin
by Fernanda Rosa Vieira, Nuno Gama, Sandra Magina, Ana Barros-Timmons, Dmitry V. Evtuguin and Paula C. O. R. Pinto
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5305; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235305 - 5 Dec 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2720
Abstract
Lignin-based polyol was obtained via oxyalkylation reaction with propylene carbonate using eucalyptus kraft lignin isolated from the industrial cooking liquor by the Lignoboost® procedure. This lignin-based polyol (LBP) was used without purification in the preparation of polyurethane (PU) adhesives combined with polymeric [...] Read more.
Lignin-based polyol was obtained via oxyalkylation reaction with propylene carbonate using eucalyptus kraft lignin isolated from the industrial cooking liquor by the Lignoboost® procedure. This lignin-based polyol (LBP) was used without purification in the preparation of polyurethane (PU) adhesives combined with polymeric 4,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI). A series of adhesives were obtained by varying the NCO/OH ratio of PU counterparts (pMDI and LBPs) and their performance was evaluated by gluing wood pieces under predefined conditions. The adhesion properties of the novel PU adhesive were compared with those of a commercial PU adhesive (CPA). The occurrence and extent of curing reactions and changes in the polymeric network of PA were monitored by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic mechanical analysis. Although the lap shear strength and glass transition temperature of the lignin-based PU adhesives have increased steadily with the NCO/OH ratio ranging from 1.1–2.2, chemical aging resistance can be compromised when the NCO/OH is very low. It was found that the lignin-based PU adhesive with an NCO/OH ratio of 1.3 showed better chemical resistance and adhesion efficiency than CPA possibly because the NCO/OH in the latter is too high as revealed by FTIR spectroscopy. Despite some lower thermal stability and shorter gelation time of lignin-based PU than CPA, the former revealed great potential to reduce the use of petroleum-derived polyols and isocyanates with potential application in the furniture industry as wood bonding adhesive. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Natural Polymers)
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12 pages, 2501 KiB  
Article
High-Efficiency Carbon Fiber Recovery Method and Characterization of Carbon FIBER-Reinforced Epoxy/4,4′-Diaminodiphenyl Sulfone Composites
by Yong-Min Lee, Kwan-Woo Kim and Byung-Joo Kim
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5304; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235304 - 4 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3223
Abstract
Globally, the demand for carbon fiber-reinforced thermosetting plastics for various applications is increasing. As a result, the amount of waste from CFRPs is increasing every year, and the EU Council recommends recycling and reuse of CFRPs. Epoxy resin (EP) is used as a [...] Read more.
Globally, the demand for carbon fiber-reinforced thermosetting plastics for various applications is increasing. As a result, the amount of waste from CFRPs is increasing every year, and the EU Council recommends recycling and reuse of CFRPs. Epoxy resin (EP) is used as a matrix for CFRPs, and amine hardeners are mainly used. However, no research has been conducted on recycling EP/4,4’-diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS)-based CFRP. In this study, the effect of steam and air pyrolysis conditions on the mechanical properties of re-cycled carbon fiber (r-CF) recovered from carbon fiber-reinforced thermosetting (epoxy/4,4′-diaminodiphenyl sulfone) plastics (CFRPs) was investigated. Steam pyrolysis enhanced resin degradation relative to N2. The tensile strength of the recovered r-CF was reduced by up to 35.12% due to oxidation by steam or air. However, the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) tended to increase by 9.18%, which is considered to be due to the increase in functional groups containing oxygen atoms and the roughness of the surface due to oxidation. The recycling of CFRP in both a steam and an air atmosphere caused a decrease in the tensile strength of r-CF. However, they were effective methods to recover r-CF that had a clean surface and increased IFSS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites: Mechanical Properties and Applications)
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