Journal of Intelligence

17 pages, 396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Has Cognitive Ability Become More Important for Education and the Labor Market? A Comparison of the Project Talent and 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Cohorts

by Gary Neil Marks

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080169 - 21 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Modernization and meritocratic theories contend that with modernization, socioeconomic background (SES) becomes less important for educational and socioeconomic attainments, while cognitive ability becomes more important. However, the evidence is mixed. This study investigates if the effects of SES and cognitive ability on educational [...] Read more.

Modernization and meritocratic theories contend that with modernization, socioeconomic background (SES) becomes less important for educational and socioeconomic attainments, while cognitive ability becomes more important. However, the evidence is mixed. This study investigates if the effects of SES and cognitive ability on educational and labor market outcomes have changed in the US by comparing two longitudinal cohort studies: the 1960 Project Talent and the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. For all outcomes—grades-at-school, educational and occupational attainment, and income—cognitive ability clearly has stronger effects than a composite and broad measure of SES. The effects of cognitive ability for grades-at-school and income are notably stronger in the more recent cohort, whereas its effects on educational and occupational attainment are similar. SES effects, net of ability, for educational and occupational attainment are only moderate and for school grades and income are very small (β < 0.10). However, for each outcome SES effects are stronger in the more recent NLSY79 cohort. This is attributed to ability being a stronger influence on the educational and socioeconomic attainments of NLSY79 parents compared to Project Talent parents. These analyses suggest that in the US, cognitive ability has long been an important, and SES a much weaker, influence on educational and subsequent socioeconomic outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Personality, Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Life Outcomes)

21 pages, 2233 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Novel Approach to Assessing Infant and Child Mental Rotation

by Aaron G. Beckner, Mary Katz, David N. Tompkins, Annika T. Voss, Deaven Winebrake, Vanessa LoBue, Lisa M. Oakes and Marianella Casasola

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080168 - 20 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Mental rotation is a critically important, early developing spatial skill that is related to other spatial cognitive abilities. Understanding the early development of this skill, however, requires a developmentally appropriate assessment that can be used with infants, toddlers, and young children. We present [...] Read more.

Mental rotation is a critically important, early developing spatial skill that is related to other spatial cognitive abilities. Understanding the early development of this skill, however, requires a developmentally appropriate assessment that can be used with infants, toddlers, and young children. We present here a new eye-tracking task that uses a staircase procedure to assess mental rotation in 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old children (N = 41). To ensure that all children understood the task, the session began with training and practice, in which the children learned to fixate which of two houses a giraffe, facing either left or right, would approach. The adaptive two-up, one-down staircase procedure assessed the children’s ability to fixate the correct house when the giraffe was rotated in 30° (up) or 15° (down) increments. The procedure was successful, with most children showing evidence of mental rotation. In addition, the children were less likely to succeed as the angle of rotation increased, and the older children succeeded at higher angles of rotation than the younger children, replicating previous findings with other procedures. The present study contributes a new paradigm that can assess the development of mental rotation in young children and holds promise for yielding insights into individual differences in mental rotation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Structure of Working Memory and Its Relationship with Intelligence in Japanese Children

by Yoshifumi Ikeda, Yosuke Kita, Yuhei Oi, Hideyuki Okuzumi, Silvia Lanfranchi, Francesca Pulina, Irene Cristina Mammarella, Katie Allen and David Giofrè

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080167 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2075

Abstract

There is a host of research on the structure of working memory (WM) and its relationship with intelligence in adults, but only a few studies have involved children. In this paper, several different WM models were tested on 170 Japanese school children (from [...] Read more.

There is a host of research on the structure of working memory (WM) and its relationship with intelligence in adults, but only a few studies have involved children. In this paper, several different WM models were tested on 170 Japanese school children (from 7 years and 5 months to 11 years and 6 months). Results showed that a model distinguishing between modalities (i.e., verbal and spatial WM) fitted the data well and was therefore selected. Notably, a bi-factor model distinguishing between modalities, but also including a common WM factor, presented with a very good fit, but was less parsimonious. Subsequently, we tested the predictive power of the verbal and spatial WM factors on fluid and crystallized intelligence. Results indicated that the shared contribution of WM explained the largest portion of variance of fluid intelligence, with verbal and spatial WM independently explaining a residual portion of the variance. Concerning crystallized intelligence, however, verbal WM explained the largest portion of the variance, with the joint contribution of verbal and spatial WM explaining the residual part. The distinction between verbal and spatial WM could be important in clinical settings (e.g., children with atypical development might struggle selectively on some WM components) and in school settings (e.g., verbal and spatial WM might be differently implicated in mathematical achievement). Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ability Emotional Intelligence and Subjective Happiness in Adolescents: The Role of Positive and Negative Affect

by Desirée Llamas-Díaz, Rosario Cabello, Raquel Gómez-Leal, María José Gutiérrez-Cobo, Alberto Megías-Robles and Pablo Fernández-Berrocal

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080166 - 16 Aug 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3214

Abstract

Adolescence is an increasingly vulnerable period for the onset of affective disorders and other mental health issues that can significantly impact an individual’s subjective well-being. This study aims to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence (ability EI), measured with a performance-based instrument, and [...] Read more.

Adolescence is an increasingly vulnerable period for the onset of affective disorders and other mental health issues that can significantly impact an individual’s subjective well-being. This study aims to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence (ability EI), measured with a performance-based instrument, and Subjective Happiness in adolescents. It also explores the mediating role of positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) in this association and the moderating role of gender. The sample consisted of 333 first-year secondary school students from five centers in Spain, with an average age of 12.11 years (SD = 0.64), ranging from 11–14 years. Path analysis revealed an indirect effect (through NA and PA jointly) of Total Ability EI on Subjective Happiness and a positive direct effect that was observed only in females. Furthermore, this association was explored through various branches of ability EI. The results of this study suggest that interventions aimed at improving emotional abilities in adolescents while modulating the intensity of their emotions could significantly impact their overall well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: Knowns, Unknowns, and Future Directions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Spatial Abilities in Children: A Comparison of Mental-Rotation and Perspective-Taking Tasks

by Andrea Frick and Stefan Pichelmann

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080165 - 16 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2622

Abstract

Mental rotation (MR) and perspective taking (PT) are important spatial abilities and predictive of performance in other cognitive domains. Yet, age-appropriate measures to assess these spatial abilities in children are still rare. This study examined psychometric properties of four MR tasks in 6- [...] Read more.

Mental rotation (MR) and perspective taking (PT) are important spatial abilities and predictive of performance in other cognitive domains. Yet, age-appropriate measures to assess these spatial abilities in children are still rare. This study examined psychometric properties of four MR tasks in 6- to 9-year-olds (N = 96). Two were developed specifically for children and two were based on established assessments for adults; one of each was a computerized and one was a paper–pencil task. Furthermore, spatial perspective taking (PT)—a different but closely related ability—was assessed to determine discriminant validity. Factor analyses showed that all MR tasks loaded on one single factor, with PT only loading weakly on the same factor, suggesting high construct validity. The computerized task for adults showed moderate factor loadings, constituted its own (but correlated) factor when a two-factor solution was forced, and showed the lowest reliabilities, suggesting that it was very difficult for children. On average, the new MR tasks had good to excellent reliabilities, differentiated well between age groups, and proved to be well-suited to assess MR in this age range. The PT task also showed good reliability and a steep developmental progression. Relations to verbal skills, gaming experience, and TV consumption are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Role of Attentional Reorienting in the Reactive Effects of Judgments of Learning on Memory Performance

by Michelle L. Rivers, Jessica L. Janes, John Dunlosky, Amber E. Witherby and Sarah K. Tauber

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080164 - 15 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1761

Abstract

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying related word pairs can enhance performance on tests that rely on cue-target associations (e.g., cued recall) compared to studying alone. One possible explanation for this positive JOL reactivity effect is that the prompt to make JOLs, [...] Read more.

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying related word pairs can enhance performance on tests that rely on cue-target associations (e.g., cued recall) compared to studying alone. One possible explanation for this positive JOL reactivity effect is that the prompt to make JOLs, which typically occurs halfway through the presentation of each pair, may encourage learners to devote more attention to the pair during the second half of the encoding episode, which may contribute to enhanced recall performance. To investigate this idea, an online sample of participants (Experiment 1) and undergraduate students (Experiment 2) studied a set of moderately related word pairs (e.g., dairy–cow) in preparation for a cued recall test. Some participants made JOLs for each pair halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants did not. Also, some participants were presented with a fixation point halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants were not. The goal of this fixation point was to simulate the possible “reorienting” effect of a JOL prompt halfway through each encoding episode. In both an unsupervised online context and a supervised laboratory context, cued recall performance was higher for participants who made JOLs compared to those who did not make JOLs. However, presenting a fixation point halfway through the presentation of each pair did not lead to reactive effects on memory. Thus, JOLs are more effective than a manipulation that reoriented participants to the word pairs in another way (i.e., via a fixation point), which provides some initial evidence that positive reactivity for related pairs is not solely driven by attentional reorienting during encoding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating the Multidimensional Generalized Graded Unfolding Model with Covariates Using a Bayesian Approach

by Naidan Tu, Bo Zhang, Lawrence Angrave, Tianjun Sun and Mathew Neuman

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080163 - 14 Aug 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1520

Abstract

Noncognitive constructs are commonly assessed in educational and organizational research. They are often measured by summing scores across items, which implicitly assumes a dominance item response process. However, research has shown that the unfolding response process may better characterize how people respond to [...] Read more.

Noncognitive constructs are commonly assessed in educational and organizational research. They are often measured by summing scores across items, which implicitly assumes a dominance item response process. However, research has shown that the unfolding response process may better characterize how people respond to noncognitive items. The Generalized Graded Unfolding Model (GGUM) representing the unfolding response process has therefore become increasingly popular. However, the current implementation of the GGUM is limited to unidimensional cases, while most noncognitive constructs are multidimensional. Fitting a unidimensional GGUM separately for each dimension and ignoring the multidimensional nature of noncognitive data may result in suboptimal parameter estimation. Recently, an R package bmggum was developed that enables the estimation of the Multidimensional Generalized Graded Unfolding Model (MGGUM) with covariates using a Bayesian algorithm. However, no simulation evidence is available to support the accuracy of the Bayesian algorithm implemented in bmggum. In this research, two simulation studies were conducted to examine the performance of bmggum. Results showed that bmggum can estimate MGGUM parameters accurately, and that multidimensional estimation and incorporating relevant covariates into the estimation process improved estimation accuracy. The effectiveness of two Bayesian model selection indices, WAIC and LOO, were also investigated and found to be satisfactory for model selection. Empirical data were used to demonstrate the use of bmggum and its performance was compared with three other GGUM software programs: GGUM2004, GGUM, and mirt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Psychometric Methods: Theory and Practice)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individuals with High Metacognitive Ability Are Better at Divergent and Convergent Thinking

by Lan Jiang, Chunliang Yang, Zhongling Pi, Yangping Li, Shaohang Liu and Xinfa Yi

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080162 - 12 Aug 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3685

Abstract

Is metacognitive ability a predictor of creative performance? Previous studies have produced conflicting findings. To clarify whether this relationship exists, the current study used eye tracking techniques and vocal thinking reports to explore creativity differences in individuals with different levels of metacognitive ability. [...] Read more.

Is metacognitive ability a predictor of creative performance? Previous studies have produced conflicting findings. To clarify whether this relationship exists, the current study used eye tracking techniques and vocal thinking reports to explore creativity differences in individuals with different levels of metacognitive ability. One hundred and twelve participants completed the Metacognitive Ability scale, and were divided into two groups (with thirty participants in each group) based on their metacognition scores (the highest and lowest 27% of metacognitive ability scores). Then, participants in both groups completed two creative thinking tasks (AUT and CCRAT) while their eye behaviors were recorded by eye tracking. The results showed that participants with high metacognitive ability were better at divergent thinking, as evidenced by greater fixation and saccade counts, as well as smaller saccade amplitudes in the AUT task. In addition, Bayesian analyses provide anecdotal evidence that participants with high metacognitive ability tended to be better at convergent thinking. Furthermore, eye tracking results demonstrated that they exhibited longer fixation duration and more fixation count on the materials in the CCRAT task. These findings reflect an important role of metacognition in creative thinking, especially in divergent thinking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Numeracy Skills: Associations between DUPLO^® Block Construction and Numeracy in Early Childhood

by Katie A. Gilligan-Lee, Elian Fink, Lewis Jerrom, Megan P. Davies, Caoimhe Dempsey, Claire Hughes and Emily K. Farran

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080161 - 10 Aug 2023

Viewed by 2487

Abstract

Research shows that children’s block construction skills are positively associated with their concurrent and later mathematics performance. Furthermore, there is evidence that block construction training is particularly beneficial for improving early mathematics skills in children from low-Socio Economic Status (SES) groups who are [...] Read more.

Research shows that children’s block construction skills are positively associated with their concurrent and later mathematics performance. Furthermore, there is evidence that block construction training is particularly beneficial for improving early mathematics skills in children from low-Socio Economic Status (SES) groups who are known to have lower maths performance than their peers. The current study investigates (a) the association between block construction and mathematics in children just before the start of formal schooling (4 years-of-age in the UK) and (b) whether the association between block construction and mathematics differs between children from more compared to less affluent families. Participants in this study included 116 children (M = 3 years 11 months, SD = 3 months) who all completed numeracy, block construction, and receptive vocabulary tasks. Socio-economic status and demographic information (child age, gender, ethnicity) were also obtained from parents. Findings show a strong positive association between block construction and early numeracy skills. Block construction skills explained approximately 5% of the variation in numeracy, even after controlling for age in months, household income, and child receptive vocabulary. When separated by SES group, for children from less affluent families, block construction explained a significant amount of variability (14.5%) in numeracy performance after covariates. For children from more affluent families, block construction did not explain a significant amount of variation in numeracy. These findings suggest that, interventions involving block construction skills may help to reduce SES-based attainment gaps in UK children’s mathematics achievement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Structure of the French WISC–V (WISC–V^FR) for Five Age Groups Using Psychometric Network Modeling

by Thierry Lecerf, Salome Döll and Mathilde Bastien

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080160 - 10 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1509

Abstract

Since the seminal work of Spearman, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis represents the standard method of examining the dimensionality of psychological instruments. Recently, within the network psychometrics approach, a new procedure was proposed to estimate the dimensionality of psychological instruments: exploratory graph analysis [...] Read more.

Since the seminal work of Spearman, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis represents the standard method of examining the dimensionality of psychological instruments. Recently, within the network psychometrics approach, a new procedure was proposed to estimate the dimensionality of psychological instruments: exploratory graph analysis (EGA). This study investigated the structure of the French Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (WISC–V^FR) with five standardization sample age groups (6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13, and 14–16 years) using EGA. The primary research questions include (a) how many WISC–V^FR dimensions are identified in each age subgroup? (b) how are subtest scores associated within the dimensions? Because the number and the content of the dimensions identified by EGA could vary with samples, the secondary research questions include (c) is there evidence of reproducibility and generalizability of the dimensions identified by EGA? We used another procedure called bootstrap exploratory graph analysis (bootEGA). EGA and bootEGA suggested only three dimensions, which are consistent with processing speed, verbal comprehension, and the “old” perceptual reasoning factor. Results did not support the distinction between visual–spatial and fluid reasoning dimensions. EGA and bootEGA represent new tools to assess the construct validity of psychological instruments, such as the WISC–V^FR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Construct Validity of the WISC)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 2301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-National Generalizability of WISC-V and CHC Broad Ability Constructs across France, Spain, and the US

by Christopher J. Wilson, Stephen C. Bowden, Linda K. Byrne, Louis-Charles Vannier, Ana Hernandez and Lawrence G. Weiss

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080159 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

The Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model is based on psychometric cognitive ability research and is the most empirically supported model of cognitive ability constructs. This study is one in a series of cross-national comparisons investigating the equivalence and generalizability of psychological constructs which align with [...] Read more.

The Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model is based on psychometric cognitive ability research and is the most empirically supported model of cognitive ability constructs. This study is one in a series of cross-national comparisons investigating the equivalence and generalizability of psychological constructs which align with the CHC model. Previous research exploring the cross-cultural generalizability of cognitive ability measures concluded that the factor analytic models of cognitive abilities generalize across cultures and are compatible with well-established CHC constructs. The equivalence of the psychological constructs, as measured by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V), has been established across English-speaking samples. However, few studies have explored the equivalence of psychological constructs across non-English speaking, nationally representative samples. This study explored the equivalence of the WISC-V five-factor model across standardization samples from France, Spain, and the US. The five-factor scoring model demonstrated excellent fit across the three samples independently. Factorial invariance was investigated and the results demonstrated strict factorial invariance across France, Spain, and the US. The results provide further support for the generalizability of CHC constructs across Western cultural populations that speak different languages and support the continued use and development of the CHC model as a common nomenclature and blueprint for cognitive ability researchers and test developers. Suggestions for future research on the CHC model of intelligence are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Three-Stratum Theory at 30: Theory, Measurement, and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessReview

Resilience as the Ability to Maintain Well-Being: An Allostatic Active Inference Model

by Christian E. Waugh and Anthony W. Sali

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080158 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2230

Abstract

Resilience is often characterized as the outcome of well-being maintenance despite threats to that well-being. We suggest that resilience can also be characterized as an emotional-intelligence-related ability to obtain this outcome. We formulate an allostatic active inference model that outlines the primary tools [...] Read more.

Resilience is often characterized as the outcome of well-being maintenance despite threats to that well-being. We suggest that resilience can also be characterized as an emotional-intelligence-related ability to obtain this outcome. We formulate an allostatic active inference model that outlines the primary tools of this resilience ability as monitoring well-being, maintaining stable well-being beliefs while updating situational beliefs and flexibly prioritizing actions that are expected to lead to well-being maintenance or gathering the information needed to discern what those actions could be. This model helps to explain the role of positive emotions in resilience as well as how people high in resilience ability use regulatory flexibility in the service of maintaining well-being and provides a starting point for assessing resilience as an ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: Knowns, Unknowns, and Future Directions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Using None-of-the-Above (NOTA) Hurt Students’ Confidence?

by Jeri L. Little

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080157 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1542

Abstract

Students claim that multiple-choice questions can be tricky, particularly those with competitive incorrect choices or choices like none-of-the-above (NOTA). Additionally, assessment researchers suggest that using NOTA is problematic for assessment. In experiments conducted online (with trivia questions) and in the classroom (with course-related [...] Read more.

Students claim that multiple-choice questions can be tricky, particularly those with competitive incorrect choices or choices like none-of-the-above (NOTA). Additionally, assessment researchers suggest that using NOTA is problematic for assessment. In experiments conducted online (with trivia questions) and in the classroom (with course-related questions), I investigated the effects of including NOTA as a multiple-choice choice alternative on students’ confidence and performance. In four experiments, participants answered two types of questions: basic multiple-choice questions (basic condition) and equivalent questions in which one incorrect choice was replaced with NOTA (NOTA condition). Immediately after answering each question, participants rated their confidence in their answer to that question (item-by-item confidence). At the end of the experiments, participants made aggregate confidence judgments for the two types of questions and provided additional comments about the use of NOTA as an alternative. Surprisingly, I found no significant differences in item-by-item confidence or performance between the two conditions in any of the experiments. However, across all four experiments, when making aggregate judgments, participants provided lower confidence estimates in the NOTA condition than in the basic condition. Although people often report that NOTA questions hurt their confidence, the present results suggest that they might not—at least not on a question-by-question basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Planning and Non-Targeted Exploration in PIAAC 2012: Validating Their Measures Based on Process Data and Investigating Their Relationships with Problem-Solving Competency

by Maoxin Zhang, Björn Andersson and Samuel Greiff

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080156 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1337

Abstract

Problem-solving is a critical aspect of intelligence that has become increasingly important in modern society. Mapping out the determinants of success in problem-solving helps understand the underlying cognitive processes involved. This article focuses on two key cognitive processes in problem-solving: non-targeted exploration and [...] Read more.

Problem-solving is a critical aspect of intelligence that has become increasingly important in modern society. Mapping out the determinants of success in problem-solving helps understand the underlying cognitive processes involved. This article focuses on two key cognitive processes in problem-solving: non-targeted exploration and planning. We generalize previously defined indicators of planning and non-targeted exploration across tasks in the 2012 Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies and examine the internal construct validity of the indicators using confirmatory factor analysis. We also investigate the relationships between problem-solving competency, planning, and non-targeted exploration, along with the specific dependence between indicators from the same task. The results suggest that (a) the planning indicator across tasks provides evidence of internal construct validity; (b) the non-targeted exploration indicator provides weaker evidence of internal construct validity; (c) overall, non-targeted exploration is strongly related to problem-solving competency, whereas planning and problem-solving competencies are weakly negatively related; and (d) such relationships vary substantially across tasks, emphasizing the importance of accounting for the dependency of measures from the same task. Our findings deepen our understanding of problem-solving processes and can support the use of digital tools in educational practice and validate task design by comparing the task-specific relationships with the desired design. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ethics and Meditation: A New Educational Combination to Boost Verbal Creativity and Sense of Responsibility

by Hélène Hagège, Mohammed El Ourmi, Rebecca Shankland, France Arboix-Calas, Christophe Leys and Todd Lubart

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080155 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

Both creativity and responsibility are important higher-order skills to develop to meet the challenges of the Anthropocene, and both are related to attentional states of consciousness and to ethics. Meditation is a set of practices that trains attentional and emotional regulation. A few [...] Read more.

Both creativity and responsibility are important higher-order skills to develop to meet the challenges of the Anthropocene, and both are related to attentional states of consciousness and to ethics. Meditation is a set of practices that trains attentional and emotional regulation. A few studies have shown that different kinds of meditation can foster different kinds of creative thinking, and others have begun to investigate the effect of the combination of meditation and ethics on ethical characteristics (but not yet on creativity or precisely on responsibility, so far). Here, we present a nonrandomized trial with an active control group among second-year science university students (n = 84) to test the effect of the secular Meditation-Based Ethics of Responsibility (MBER) program on creative potential, self-reported awareness, and sense of one’s own responsibility. The results show a large effect of the program on sense of one’s own responsibility and convergent and divergent creative writing tasks, both in conceptual–semantic and engineering-like verbal ideation. They also suggest that convergent conceptual–semantic thinking might moderate the effect of the MBER program on the awareness and sense of one’s own responsibility. This work opens up new research and educational perspectives linked to necessary behavioral changes in the Anthropocene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities and Their Development in the Anthropocene)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of a Short Form of the Indonesian Version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition

by Christiany Suwartono, Marc P. H. Hendriks, Lidia L. Hidajat, Magdalena S. Halim and Roy P. C. Kessels

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080154 - 4 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1635

Abstract

(1) Background: The Wechsler intelligence scales are very popular in clinical practice and for research purposes. However, they are time consuming to administer. Therefore, researchers and psychologists have explored the possibility of shorter test battery compositions. (2) Methods: In this study, we investigated [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The Wechsler intelligence scales are very popular in clinical practice and for research purposes. However, they are time consuming to administer. Therefore, researchers and psychologists have explored the possibility of shorter test battery compositions. (2) Methods: In this study, we investigated 13 potential short forms of the Indonesian version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV-ID). An existing standardization data set of 1745 Indonesian participants collected for the validation of the WAIS-IV-ID was used to examine the short forms’ validity. These ranged from 2-subtest versions to 7-subtest versions. Regression analyses with goodness-of-fit measures were performed, and regression equations were determined for each short form to estimate the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) score. Discrepancies between the FSIQ and the estimated FSIQ (FSIQ_Est) scores were examined and classification accuracies were calculated for each short form (% agreement of intelligence classification between the FSIQ_Est and FSIQ). (3) Results: None of the 13 short form FSIQ_Est values significantly differed from the FSIQ scores based on the full WAIS-IV-ID, and strong correlations were observed between each of these values. The classification accuracies of the short forms were between 56.8% and 81.0%. The 4-subtest short form of the WAIS-IV-ID consisting of the subtests Matrix Reasoning, Information, Arithmetic, and Coding had the optimal balance between best classification values and a short administration duration. The validity of this short form was demonstrated in a second study in an independent sample (N = 20). (4) Conclusions: Based on the results presented here, the WAIS-IV-ID short forms are able to reliably estimate the FSIQ, with a significant shorter administration duration. The WAIS-IV-ID short form consisting of four subtests, Matrix Reasoning, Information, Arithmetic, and Coding, was the best version according to our criteria. Full article

31 pages, 17511 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Underappreciated Benefits of Interleaving for Category Learning

by Lan Anh Do and Ayanna K. Thomas

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080153 - 2 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2023

Abstract

The present study examined the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) and feature descriptions on category learning and metacognitive predictions of learning. Across three experiments, participants studied exemplars from different rock categories and later had to classify novel exemplars. Rule-based and information-based [...] Read more.

The present study examined the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) and feature descriptions on category learning and metacognitive predictions of learning. Across three experiments, participants studied exemplars from different rock categories and later had to classify novel exemplars. Rule-based and information-based categorization was also manipulated by selecting rock sub-categories for which the optimal strategy was the one that aligned with the extraction of a simple rule, or the one that required integration of information that may be difficult to describe verbally. We observed consistent benefits of interleaving over blocking on rock classification, which generalized to both rule-based (Experiment 1) and information-integration learning (Experiments 1–3). However, providing feature descriptions enhanced classification accuracy only when the stated features were diagnostic of category membership, indicating that their benefits were limited to rule-based learning (Experiment 1) and did not generalize to information-integration learning (Experiments 1–3). Furthermore, our examination of participants’ metacognitive predictions demonstrated that participants were not aware of the benefits of interleaving on category learning. Additionally, providing feature descriptions led to higher predictions of categorization even when no significant benefits on actual performance were exhibited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Influence of Item Characteristics in a Spatial Reasoning Task

by Qingzhou Shi, Stefanie A. Wind and Joni M. Lakin

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080152 - 31 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1420

Abstract

Well-designed spatial assessments can incorporate multiple sources of complexity that reflect important aspects of spatial reasoning. When these aspects are systematically included in spatial reasoning items, researchers can use psychometric models to examine the impact of each aspect on item difficulty. These methods [...] Read more.

Well-designed spatial assessments can incorporate multiple sources of complexity that reflect important aspects of spatial reasoning. When these aspects are systematically included in spatial reasoning items, researchers can use psychometric models to examine the impact of each aspect on item difficulty. These methods can then help the researchers to understand the nature and development of spatial reasoning and can also inform the development of new items to better reflect the construct. This study investigated sources of item difficulty for object assembly (OA), a format for the assessment of spatial reasoning, by specifying nine item characteristics that were predicted to contribute to item difficulty. We used data from two focal samples including high-ability students in grades 3 to 7 and undergraduate students who responded to 15 newly developed OA items. Results from the linear logistic test model (LLTM) indicated that eight of the nine identified item characteristics significantly contributed to item difficulty. This suggests that an LLTM approach is useful in examining the contributions of various aspects of spatial reasoning to item difficulty and informing item development for spatial reasoning assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 469 KiB

Open AccessReview

Preschool Children’s Loose Parts Play and the Relationship to Cognitive Development: A Review of the Literature

by Ozlem Cankaya, Natalia Rohatyn-Martin, Jamie Leach, Keirsten Taylor and Okan Bulut

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080151 - 28 Jul 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9247

Abstract

Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it—overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form [...] Read more.

Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it—overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children’s indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children’s experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function, cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children’s play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education. Full article

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

J. Intell., Volume 11, Issue 8 (August 2023) – 19 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI