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Languages, Volume 10, Issue 8 (August 2025) – 26 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Understanding how regional identity influences perceptions of language is crucial in a diverse society. This study investigates the attitudes of US Southerners toward L2-accented English, focusing on how native English speakers in the South respond to non-native accents. Accents often carry social and cultural weight, shaping how speakers are perceived in terms of intelligence, credibility, and belonging. By exploring these attitudes, we aim to uncover underlying biases and contribute to broader discussions on linguistic diversity, inclusion, and the social dynamics of communication in the Southern United States. View this paper
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19 pages, 327 KB  
Article
On the Acquisition of English Complex Predicates and Complex Word Formation: Revisiting the Parametric Approach
by Ting Xu and Shuyan Wang
Languages 2025, 10(8), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080201 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 221
Abstract
Languages vary in their availability of productive endocentric bare-stem compounds (e.g., flower hat) and a range of complex predicates (separable verb-particles, double object datives, adjectival resultatives, put-locatives, make-causatives, and perceptual reports). To account for these cross-linguistic variations, two parameters have [...] Read more.
Languages vary in their availability of productive endocentric bare-stem compounds (e.g., flower hat) and a range of complex predicates (separable verb-particles, double object datives, adjectival resultatives, put-locatives, make-causatives, and perceptual reports). To account for these cross-linguistic variations, two parameters have been proposed: the Compounding Parameter (TCP), which governs the formation of bare-stem compounds, separable verb-particles, and adjectival resultatives, and the Small Clause Parameter (SCP), which determines whether a verb can take a small clause complement. These parameters make testable predictions about children’s acquisition. If TCP and SCP are on the right track, we would expect correlations in the acquisition of structures governed by each parameter. This study examines these predictions by analyzing longitudinal corpora from 23 English-speaking children, assessing both the correlation between the acquisition of different structures and their acquisitional ordering. Our findings support both TCP and SCP, confirming that the acquisition of bare-stem compounds is closely associated with that of separable verb-particles, while the acquisition of (some) complex predicates is related. In addition, our results offer new insights into the potential triggers that children use to set each parameter. These findings contribute to our understanding of language variation and the role of parameter setting in first language acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parametric Approaches to Cross-Linguistic Variation and Child Language Acquisition)
25 pages, 1665 KB  
Review
Translanguaging and Second-Language Reading Proficiency: A Systematic Review of Effects and Methodological Rigor
by Muhammad Asif Qureshi and Mansoor Al-Surmi
Languages 2025, 10(8), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080200 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 625
Abstract
Translanguaging has become a significant concept in applied linguistics, promoting inclusive education and equitable treatment of languages. However, despite its increasing prominence, the impact of translanguaging pedagogy on second-language (L2) reading proficiency and the methodological rigor of studies in this area remain insufficiently [...] Read more.
Translanguaging has become a significant concept in applied linguistics, promoting inclusive education and equitable treatment of languages. However, despite its increasing prominence, the impact of translanguaging pedagogy on second-language (L2) reading proficiency and the methodological rigor of studies in this area remain insufficiently examined. This systematic review, conducted in alignment with the PRISMA guidelines, addresses these gaps by analyzing 21 studies comprising 25 samples that examine the relationship between translanguaging and L2 reading development. The findings indicate a small but statistically significant positive effect of translanguaging on L2 reading comprehension (g = 0.33, CI [0.21–0.45]), though considerable variation exists across studies. Qualitative research (k = 9) generally reports favorable outcomes, while quantitative studies (k = 16) present mixed findings—ten studies show positive effects, whereas six report no significant impact. The methodological assessment highlights several shortcomings, including the absence of a priori power analysis, inconsistencies in reporting instrument and coding reliability, insufficient transparency in data reporting, and vagueness in the implementation of translanguaging practices. Additionally, contextual trends reveal a need for more research in underrepresented regions and secondary school contexts. This review emphasizes the importance of conducting rigorous, contextually diverse research to validate translanguaging as an effective approach for enhancing L2 reading proficiency. Full article
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35 pages, 493 KB  
Article
A Study of Grammatical Gradience in Relation to the Distributional Properties of Verbal Nouns in Scottish Gaelic
by Avelino Corral Esteban
Languages 2025, 10(8), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080199 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
Verbal nouns in Insular Celtic languages have long been a subject of interest because they are capable of exhibiting both nominal and verbal properties, posing a persistent challenge when it comes to determining their precise categorization. This study therefore seeks to examine the [...] Read more.
Verbal nouns in Insular Celtic languages have long been a subject of interest because they are capable of exhibiting both nominal and verbal properties, posing a persistent challenge when it comes to determining their precise categorization. This study therefore seeks to examine the intersective gradience of verbal nouns in Scottish Gaelic from a functional-typological and multidimensional perspective, providing an insight into the interaction between their morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic properties and their lexical categorization, and, consequently, encouraging a broader discussion on linguistic gradience. This hybrid category plays a central role in the clause structure of Scottish Gaelic, as it appears in a wide range of distinct grammatical constructions. Drawing on a range of diagnostic tests revealing the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of verbal nouns across various contexts (e.g., etymology, morphological structure, inflection, case marking, TAM features, syntactic function, types of modification, form and position of objects, distributional patterns, cleft constructions, argument structure, subcategorization, etc.), this line of research identifies two key environments, depending on whether the construction features a verbal noun functioning either as a verb or a noun. This distinction aims to illustrate the way in which these contexts condition the gradience of verbal nouns. By doing so, it provides strong evidence for their function along a continuum ranging from fully verbal to fully nominal depending on their syntactic context and semantic and pragmatic interpretation. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that the use of verbal nouns blurs the line between two lexical categories, often displaying mixed properties that challenge a rigid categorization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradience in Syntax and Semantics: Experimental, Modeling, and Formal Perspectives)
19 pages, 1612 KB  
Article
Listening for Region: Phonetic Cue Sensitivity and Sociolinguistic Development in L2 Spanish
by Lauren B. Schmidt
Languages 2025, 10(8), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080198 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 308
Abstract
This study investigates how second language (L2) learners of Spanish identify the regional origin of native Spanish speakers and whether specific phonetic cues predict dialect identification accuracy across proficiency levels. Situated within a growing body of work on sociolinguistic competence, this research addresses [...] Read more.
This study investigates how second language (L2) learners of Spanish identify the regional origin of native Spanish speakers and whether specific phonetic cues predict dialect identification accuracy across proficiency levels. Situated within a growing body of work on sociolinguistic competence, this research addresses the development of learners’ ability to use linguistic forms not only for communication but also for social interpretation. A dialect identification task was administered to 111 American English-speaking learners of Spanish and 19 native Spanish speakers. Participants heard sentence-length stimuli targeting regional phonetic features and selected the speaker’s country of origin. While L2 learners were able to identify regional dialects above chance, accuracy was low and significantly below that of native speakers. Higher-proficiency learners demonstrated improved identification, especially for speakers from Spain and Argentina, and relied more on salient phonetic cues (e.g., [θ], [ʃ]). No significant development was found for identification of Mexican or Puerto Rican varieties. Unlike native speakers, L2 learners did not show sensitivity to broader macrodialect groupings; instead, they frequently defaulted to high-exposure varieties (e.g., Spain, Mexico) regardless of the phonetic cues present. Findings suggest that sociophonetic perception in L2 Spanish develops gradually and unevenly, shaped by cue salience and exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
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20 pages, 1064 KB  
Article
Very Young Children Learning German Notice the Incorrect Syllable Stress of Words
by Ulrike Schild and Claudia Katrin Friedrich
Languages 2025, 10(8), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080197 - 18 Aug 2025
Viewed by 276
Abstract
Syllable stress can help to quickly identify words in a language with variable stress placement like German. Here, we asked at what age incorrect syllable stress impairs language learners’ attempts to assign meaning to familiar words. We recorded the looking times of young [...] Read more.
Syllable stress can help to quickly identify words in a language with variable stress placement like German. Here, we asked at what age incorrect syllable stress impairs language learners’ attempts to assign meaning to familiar words. We recorded the looking times of young children learning German aged from 4 to 15 months (infants, N69) and 2 to 4 years (toddlers, N28). Participants saw displays of two pictures (e.g., a car and a baby); one of both objects (the target) was named. The disyllabic name of the target was either correctly stressed on the first syllable (“BA.by”) or it was incorrectly stressed on the second syllable (“ba.BY”). On average, all children looked more at the target when they heard its correctly stressed name (compared to the incorrectly stressed name). Furthermore, the analyses of growth curves for all children showed a steeper increase in looking time at the target picture when children heard the correctly stressed target’s name compared to the incorrectly stressed name. These results thus suggest that even very young German-learning children use syllable stress for incremental word-meaning mapping. However, separate post hoc analyses revealed robust differences in overall target fixations only in toddlers but not in infants. The stronger effects in toddlers compared to infants could be related either to the growing vocabulary or the increasing sensitivity to word stress with increasing age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
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17 pages, 1086 KB  
Article
Hop(p)la in French and German
by Andrea Golato and Peter S. Golato
Languages 2025, 10(8), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080196 - 18 Aug 2025
Viewed by 249
Abstract
There is a growing body of conversation analytic research on the role of vocalizations and interjections in interaction. This conversation analytic article contributes to this research by comparing the use and functions of the interjection hop(p)la in French and German interaction. While hop(p)la [...] Read more.
There is a growing body of conversation analytic research on the role of vocalizations and interjections in interaction. This conversation analytic article contributes to this research by comparing the use and functions of the interjection hop(p)la in French and German interaction. While hop(p)la occurs frequently in everyday French and German conversation, it has not been studied as it occurs in real time. The data come from publicly-available data repositories and from the authors’ own collections. Findings show that the use and function of hop(p)la differs from what is described in popular culture publications. In addition, there are differences in the function of hop(p)la as it is used in French and German. The paper discusses the implications of this research for language teaching, translation, and applications in AI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)
28 pages, 3308 KB  
Article
Structural Discourse Markers in German Palliative Care Interactions
by Aaron Schmidt-Riese
Languages 2025, 10(8), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080195 - 18 Aug 2025
Viewed by 290
Abstract
The aim of this study is to provide a systematic account of structural discourse markers operating at a conversational macro-level in German Palliative Care interactions, focusing on their frequency, distribution, co-occurrence, and speaker-group-specific usage. By combining qualitative approaches from conversation analysis and interactional [...] Read more.
The aim of this study is to provide a systematic account of structural discourse markers operating at a conversational macro-level in German Palliative Care interactions, focusing on their frequency, distribution, co-occurrence, and speaker-group-specific usage. By combining qualitative approaches from conversation analysis and interactional linguistics with quantitative methods from corpus linguistics, discourse markers are analyzed together as a functional category from multiple analytical perspectives to enhance the overall understanding of the use of discourse markers. The analysis reveals a functional distribution across different transition points in conversation: Whereas the German so most frequently appears in openings and transitions to non-verbal activities, gut and okay predominate in topic shifts and conversation closings. However, gut and okay differ in their composition of discursive functions, although discourse structuring emerges as the second most frequent function in both cases, an observation that stands in contrast to the continued neglect of this function in standard dictionary entries. The institutional asymmetries inherent in medical interactions are reflected in the finding that both doctors and caregivers use significantly more structural discourse markers than patients and their relatives. Differences between physicians’ and caregivers’ use of discourse markers can be attributed to their different professional roles and communicative responsibilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)
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31 pages, 900 KB  
Article
Distribution and Timing of Verbal Backchannels in Conversational Speech: A Quantitative Study
by Michael Paierl, Anneliese Kelterer and Barbara Schuppler
Languages 2025, 10(8), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080194 - 15 Aug 2025
Viewed by 463
Abstract
This paper explores backchannels, short listener responses such as “mhm”, which play an important role in managing turn-taking and grounding in spontaneous conversation. While previous work has largely focused on their acoustic cues or listener’s behavior in isolation, this study investigates if and [...] Read more.
This paper explores backchannels, short listener responses such as “mhm”, which play an important role in managing turn-taking and grounding in spontaneous conversation. While previous work has largely focused on their acoustic cues or listener’s behavior in isolation, this study investigates if and when backchannels occur by taking into account the prosodic characteristics together with the communicative functions of the interlocutor’s speech preceding backchannels. Using a corpus of spontaneous dyadic conversations in Austrian German annotated with continuous turn-taking labels, we analyze the distribution of backchannels across different turn-taking contexts and examine which acoustic features affect their occurrence and timing by means of Conditional Inference Trees and linear mixed-effects regression models. Our findings show that the turn-taking function of the interlocutor’s utterance is a significant predictor of whether a backchannel occurs or not: Backchannels tend to occur most frequently after longer and syntactically complete utterances by the interlocutor. Moreover, prosodic features such as utterance duration, articulation rate variability and rising or falling intensity affect the timing of listener responses, with significant differences across different turn-taking functions. These results highlight the value of using continuous turn-taking annotations to investigate conversational dynamics and demonstrate how turn-taking function and prosody jointly shape backchannel behavior in spontaneous conversation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)
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15 pages, 835 KB  
Article
The Differential Impact of Data Collection Methods and Language Background on English Tone Choice Patterns
by Kevin Hirschi and Maria Kostromitina
Languages 2025, 10(8), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080193 - 15 Aug 2025
Viewed by 257
Abstract
This study examines the impact of spoken data collection techniques and language background on falling, level, and rising tones. Elicited data from a Discourse Completion Task (DCT), structured speech from a collaborative oral assessment task, and naturalistic speech from a comprehensive corpus of [...] Read more.
This study examines the impact of spoken data collection techniques and language background on falling, level, and rising tones. Elicited data from a Discourse Completion Task (DCT), structured speech from a collaborative oral assessment task, and naturalistic speech from a comprehensive corpus of inner-circle and Hong Kong English were analyzed for Discourse Intonation features, resulting in 2756 tone choices by 184 speakers. Multinomial logistic regression indicates that structured speech by L2 English learners and naturalistic speech by both inner circle and Hong Kong English speakers exhibited similar tone choice patterns. However, DCT responses by L2 English learners contained significantly fewer level tones and more rising tones. Qualitative analyses suggest that contrary to naturalistic studies, L2 learners use rising tones to focus their attention on the speaker during a request. L1 users, on the other hand, used a variety of tone choices that focus on language and mitigate directness. Overall, these results add further evidence that DCTs do not elicit speech that generalizes to naturalistic discourse. Structured tasks in which two L2 speakers interact mirror the rates of the inner circle and Hong Kong English speakers detected in this study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)
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17 pages, 1121 KB  
Article
Acoustic Cues to Automatic Identification of Phrase Boundaries in Lithuanian: A Preparatory Study
by Eidmantė Kalašinskaitė-Zavišienė, Gailius Raškinis and Asta Kazlauskienė
Languages 2025, 10(8), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080192 - 14 Aug 2025
Viewed by 253
Abstract
This study investigates whether specific acoustic features can reliably indicate phrase boundaries for automatic detection. It includes (1) an analysis of acoustic markers at the end of prosodic units—intonational phrases, intermediate phrases, and words—and (2) the evaluation of these features in an automatic [...] Read more.
This study investigates whether specific acoustic features can reliably indicate phrase boundaries for automatic detection. It includes (1) an analysis of acoustic markers at the end of prosodic units—intonational phrases, intermediate phrases, and words—and (2) the evaluation of these features in an automatic boundary detection algorithm. Data were drawn from professionally and expressively read speech (893 words), news broadcasts (732 words), and interviews (361 words). Key features analyzed were pause duration, final sound lengthening, intensity, and F0 changes. Findings show that pauses and their duration are the most consistent indicators of phrase boundaries, especially at intonational phrase ends. Final sound lengthening and reductions in intensity and F0 also contribute but are less reliable for intermediate phrases. In automatic detection phonetic cues can be used to predict boundaries assigned by phoneticians 69% of the time. Read speech yielded better results than spontaneous speech. Among the features, pause presence and length were the most reliable, while F0 and intensity changes played a minor role. Full article
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21 pages, 1112 KB  
Article
Evaluative Grammar and Non-Standard Comparatives: A Cross-Linguistic Analysis of Ukrainian and English
by Oksana Kovtun
Languages 2025, 10(8), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080191 - 6 Aug 2025
Viewed by 442
Abstract
This study examines non-standard comparative and superlative adjective forms in Ukrainian and English, emphasizing their evaluative meanings and grammatical deviations. While prescriptive grammar dictates conventional comparison patterns, modern discourse—particularly in advertising, informal communication, and literary texts—exhibits an increasing prevalence of innovative comparative structures. [...] Read more.
This study examines non-standard comparative and superlative adjective forms in Ukrainian and English, emphasizing their evaluative meanings and grammatical deviations. While prescriptive grammar dictates conventional comparison patterns, modern discourse—particularly in advertising, informal communication, and literary texts—exhibits an increasing prevalence of innovative comparative structures. Using a corpus-based approach, this research identifies patterns of positive and negative evaluative meanings, revealing that positive evaluations dominate non-standard comparatives in both languages, particularly in advertising (English: 78.5%, Ukrainian: 80.2%). However, English exhibits a higher tolerance for grammatical flexibility, while Ukrainian maintains a more restricted use, primarily in commercial and expressive discourse. The findings highlight the pragmatic and evaluative functions of such constructions, including hyperbolic emphasis, rhetorical contrast, and branding strategies. These insights contribute to research on comparative grammar, sentiment analysis, and natural language processing, particularly in modeling evaluative structures in computational linguistics. Full article
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20 pages, 367 KB  
Article
Power Dynamics and Discourse Technologies in Jordanian Colloquial Arabic Allophonic Consonant Variations
by Bassel Alzboun, Raed Al Ramahi and Nisreen Abu Hanak
Languages 2025, 10(8), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080190 - 5 Aug 2025
Viewed by 377
Abstract
Most academic papers on Jordanian colloquial Arabic allophonic consonant variants have primarily examined their influence on the social status of speakers and their role in shaping linguistic prestige. However, there is a significant lack of research exploring the potential for manipulation and establishment [...] Read more.
Most academic papers on Jordanian colloquial Arabic allophonic consonant variants have primarily examined their influence on the social status of speakers and their role in shaping linguistic prestige. However, there is a significant lack of research exploring the potential for manipulation and establishment of power through the deliberate use of consonantal variants by Jordanian speakers in Arabic. Using a variety of allophonic consonantal variants, this study investigates how speakers of Jordanian colloquial Arabic attempt to construct their discourse of power. The targeted phonemes in the current study were /q/, /θ/, /ð/, and /k/. Focus groups were used to gather data, which were then examined within the framework of Fairclough’s technologized discourse and thematic approaches. Twenty persons, 10 women and 10 men, ranging in age from 18 to 45 years, comprised each of the two groups. The duration of each focus group session was 50 min. Analysis of the data indicates that the presence of [q], [θ], [ð], and [k] allophones in Standard Arabic is restricted to particular social circumstances, such as official and scientific environments. This usage is a common trait among those who have received formal education and privileged social standing. The findings also reveal that participants strategically utilize the allophonic variants [g], [ʔ], [k], [t̪], [d̪], and [tʃ] to exert influence over interlocutors by demonstrating authority related to social identity, gender, and emotional state. This study intends to advance discussions on allophonic consonant variants in Jordanian colloquial Arabic by providing insights into their manipulative functions. Full article
16 pages, 1047 KB  
Article
Measuring Adult Heritage Language Lexical Proficiency for Studies on Facilitative Processing of Gender
by Zuzanna Fuchs, Emma Kealey, Esra Eldem-Tunç, Leo Mermelstein, Linh Pham, Anna Runova, Yue Chen, Metehan Oğuz, Seoyoon Hong, Catherine Pan and JK Subramony
Languages 2025, 10(8), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080189 - 4 Aug 2025
Viewed by 975
Abstract
The present study analyzes individual differences in the facilitative processing of grammatical gender by heritage speakers of Spanish, asking whether these differences correlate with lexical proficiency. Results from an eye-tracking study in the Visual World Paradigm replicate prior findings that, as a group, [...] Read more.
The present study analyzes individual differences in the facilitative processing of grammatical gender by heritage speakers of Spanish, asking whether these differences correlate with lexical proficiency. Results from an eye-tracking study in the Visual World Paradigm replicate prior findings that, as a group, heritage speakers of Spanish show facilitative processing of gender. Importantly, in a follow-up within-group analysis, we test whether three measures of lexical proficiency—oral picture-naming, verbal fluency, and LexTALE—predict individual performance. We find that lexical proficiency, as measured by LexTALE, predicts overall word recognition; however, we observe no effects of the other measures and no evidence that lexical proficiency modulates the strength of the facilitative effect. Our results highlight the importance of carefully selecting tools for proficiency assessment in experimental studies involving heritage speakers, underscoring that the absence of evidence for an effect of proficiency based on a single measure should not be taken as evidence of absence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
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30 pages, 941 KB  
Article
Language Contact and Population Contact as Sources of Dialect Similarity
by Jonathan Dunn and Sidney Wong
Languages 2025, 10(8), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080188 - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 491
Abstract
This paper creates a global similarity network between city-level dialects of English in order to determine whether external factors like the amount of population contact or language contact influence dialect similarity. While previous computational work has focused on external influences that contribute to [...] Read more.
This paper creates a global similarity network between city-level dialects of English in order to determine whether external factors like the amount of population contact or language contact influence dialect similarity. While previous computational work has focused on external influences that contribute to phonological or lexical similarity, this paper focuses on grammatical variation as operationalized in computational construction grammar. Social media data was used to create comparable English corpora from 256 cities across 13 countries. Each sample is represented using the type frequency of various constructions. These frequency representations are then used to calculate pairwise similarities between city-level dialects; a prediction-based evaluation shows that these similarity values are highly accurate. Linguistic similarity is then compared with four external factors: (i) the amount of air travel between cities, a proxy for population contact, (ii) the difference in the linguistic landscapes of each city, a proxy for language contact, (iii) the geographic distance between cities, and (iv) the presence of political boundaries separating cities. The results show that, while all these factors are significant, the best model relies on language contact and geographic distance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)
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27 pages, 618 KB  
Article
On Pragmatics Functions of Hacer de Cuenta: A Study of Its Development in the 20th and 21st Centuries in Mexican Spanish
by Josaphat Enrique Guillén Escamilla and Adriana Belén Jiménez Vega
Languages 2025, 10(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080187 - 30 Jul 2025
Viewed by 409
Abstract
In the Hispanic world, the analysis of discourse particles from a microdiachronic perspective has emerged as a relatively recent area of research that has already demonstrated its efficacy, particularly in the context of Spain. However, in the case of Mexico, this type of [...] Read more.
In the Hispanic world, the analysis of discourse particles from a microdiachronic perspective has emerged as a relatively recent area of research that has already demonstrated its efficacy, particularly in the context of Spain. However, in the case of Mexico, this type of study is still marginal. The objective of this paper is to analyze hacer de cuenta in Mexican Spanish during the 20th and 21st centuries to illustrate its processes of grammaticalization and pragmatization. To this end, a comprehensive analysis of the CREA and CORDE corpora, as well as six corpora of Mexican Spanish, was conducted. This methodological approach was proposed for three reasons. Firstly, it facilitated the acquisition of a diverse sample of examples. Secondly, it ensured the inclusion of corpora from different decades. Thirdly, it obtained examples that approximate orality. The findings suggest that during this period, hacer de cuenta was undergoing a process of pragmatization. Consequently, it can be regarded as a discourse particle that primarily encodes an intersubjective value, through which the speaker attempts to share with the interlocutor the way she/he conceptualizes a particular event. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)
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24 pages, 3005 KB  
Article
“Not gonna lie, that’s a real bummer”—The Usualization of the Pragmatic Marker not gonna lie
by Nicole Benker
Languages 2025, 10(8), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080186 - 29 Jul 2025
Viewed by 354
Abstract
This study is concerned with the formal and functional development of the pragmatic marker not gonna lie. It comprises a detailed investigation into the usage and development of not gonna lie in American English. This study shows that not gonna lie develops [...] Read more.
This study is concerned with the formal and functional development of the pragmatic marker not gonna lie. It comprises a detailed investigation into the usage and development of not gonna lie in American English. This study shows that not gonna lie develops from the clause NP BE not going to lie to NP. From its earliest attestations onward, the marker occurs in contexts carrying face threats, which points towards face-threat mitigation as its main function. This discourse function can only be observed for variants with first-person subjects and you in the prepositional phrase (if present). The later omission of elements through the course of the development indicates an increase in syntactic autonomy. The remaining chunk, not gonna lie, leaves little room for variability and is dominated by its discursive function. The findings are interpreted through the lens of usualization as described in the Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization Model. This dynamic, usage-based and cognitive model of language use and change lends itself to providing a fine-grained description and explanation of the grammaticalization-like processes observed in this case study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)
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25 pages, 2287 KB  
Article
Quantitative Measurement of Hakka Phonetic Distances
by I-Ping Wan
Languages 2025, 10(8), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080185 - 29 Jul 2025
Viewed by 293
Abstract
This study proposes a novel approach to measuring phonetic distances among six Hailu Hakka vowels ([i, e, ɨ, a, u, o]) by applying Euclidean distance-based calculations from both articulatory and acoustic perspectives. By analyzing articulatory feature values and acoustic formant structures, vowel distances [...] Read more.
This study proposes a novel approach to measuring phonetic distances among six Hailu Hakka vowels ([i, e, ɨ, a, u, o]) by applying Euclidean distance-based calculations from both articulatory and acoustic perspectives. By analyzing articulatory feature values and acoustic formant structures, vowel distances are systematically represented through linear vector arrangements. These measurements address ongoing debates regarding the central positioning of [ɨ], specifically whether it aligns more closely with front or back vowels and whether [a] or [ɑ] more accurately represents vowel articulation. This study also reassesses the validity of prior acoustic findings on Hailu Hakka vowels and evaluates the correspondence between articulatory normalization and acoustic formant-based models. Through the integration of articulatory and acoustic data, this research advances a replicable and theoretically grounded method for quantitative vowel analysis. The results not only refine phonetic classification within a Euclidean framework but also help resolve transcription inconsistencies in phonetic distance matrices. This study contributes to the growing field of quantitative phonetics by offering a systematic, multidimensional model applicable to both theoretical and experimental investigations of Taiwan Hailu Hakka. Full article
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33 pages, 9323 KB  
Article
The Creation of Humor Modality Through Pragmemic Triggers: Cross-Linguistic Dynamics
by William O. Beeman
Languages 2025, 10(8), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080184 - 29 Jul 2025
Viewed by 501
Abstract
Humor creation is presented as a modality in human communication involving “double framing”, in which a scenario, understanding, or agreed-upon reality is presented and is suddenly revealed to be something else by being recontextualized during the humorous presentation. This analysis utilizes Ba Theory, [...] Read more.
Humor creation is presented as a modality in human communication involving “double framing”, in which a scenario, understanding, or agreed-upon reality is presented and is suddenly revealed to be something else by being recontextualized during the humorous presentation. This analysis utilizes Ba Theory, as articulated in the philosophy of Kitaro Nishida and Shimizu. Ba is a cognitive space for developing relationships, both interpersonal and in relationships to shared environments. A state of Ba arises in social interaction, requiring the need for pragmemic triggers to initiate creation and sustaining of a Ba state. The creation of humor requires that participants be in a state of Ba with each other, sharing the knowledge and understanding of the frames to which they are exposed. Examples are provided from Japanese, Chinese, German, Persian, Arabic, and English humor creation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)
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18 pages, 900 KB  
Article
Don’t Pause Me When I Switch: Parsing Effects of Code-Switching
by Marina Sokolova and Jessica Ward
Languages 2025, 10(8), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080183 - 29 Jul 2025
Viewed by 287
Abstract
This study investigates the effect of code-switching (CS) on the processing and attachment resolution of ambiguous relative clauses (RCs) like ‘Bill saw the friend of the neighbor that was talking about football’ by heritage speakers of Spanish. It checks whether code-switching imposes a [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effect of code-switching (CS) on the processing and attachment resolution of ambiguous relative clauses (RCs) like ‘Bill saw the friend of the neighbor that was talking about football’ by heritage speakers of Spanish. It checks whether code-switching imposes a prosodic break at the place of language change, and whether this prosodic break affects RC parsing, as predicted by the Implicit Prosody Hypothesis: a high attachment (HA) preference results from a prosodic break at the RC. A prosodic break at the preposition ‘of’ in the complex DP ‘the friend of the neighbor’ entails a low attachment (LA) preference. The design compares RC resolution in unilingual sentences (Spanish, with a default preference for HA in RC, and English, with the default LA) with the RC parsing in sentences with CS. The CS occurs at the places of prosodic breaks considered by the IPH. The results show sensitivity to the place of CS in RC attachment. CS prompting LA causes longer response times. The preference for HA in Spanish unilingual sentences is higher than in English ones. Heritage speakers are sensitive to the prosodic effects of CS. However, there is high variability across speakers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
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23 pages, 4920 KB  
Article
Vocative Che in Falkland Islands English: Identity, Contact, and Enregisterment
by Yliana Virginia Rodríguez and Miguel Barrientos
Languages 2025, 10(8), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080182 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 374
Abstract
Falkland Islands English (FIE) began its development in the first half of the 19th century. In part, as a consequence of its youth, FIE is an understudied variety. It shares some morphosyntactic features with other anglophone countries in the Southern Hemisphere, but it [...] Read more.
Falkland Islands English (FIE) began its development in the first half of the 19th century. In part, as a consequence of its youth, FIE is an understudied variety. It shares some morphosyntactic features with other anglophone countries in the Southern Hemisphere, but it also shares lexical features with regional varieties of Spanish, including Rioplatense Spanish. Che is one of many South American words that have entered FIE through Spanish, with its spelling ranging from “chay” and “chey” to “ché”. The word has received some marginal attention in terms of its meaning. It is said to be used in a similar way to the British dear or love and the Australian mate, and it has been compared to chum or pal, and is taken as an equivalent of the River Plate, hey!, hi!, or I say!. In this work, we explore the hypothesis that che entered FIE through historical contact with Rioplatense Spanish, drawing on both linguistic and sociohistorical evidence, and presenting survey, corpus, and ethnographic data that illustrate its current vitality, usage, and social meanings among FIE speakers. In situ observations, fieldwork, and an online survey were used to look into the vitality of che. Concomitantly, by crawling social media and the local press, enough data was gathered to build a small corpus to further study its vitality. A thorough literature review was conducted to hypothesise about the borrowing process involving its entry into FIE. The findings confirm that the word is primarily a vocative, it is commonly used, and it is indicative of a sense of belonging to the Falklands community. Although there is no consensus on the origin of che in the River Plate region, it seems to be the case that it entered FIE during the intense Spanish–English contact that took place during the second half of the 19th century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)
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24 pages, 1300 KB  
Article
That Came as No Surprise! The Processing of Prosody–Grammar Associations in Danish First and Second Language Users
by Sabine Gosselke Berthelsen and Line Burholt Kristensen
Languages 2025, 10(8), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080181 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 404
Abstract
In some languages, prosodic cues on word stems can be used to predict upcoming suffixes. Previous studies have shown that second language (L2) users can process such cues predictively in their L2 from approximately intermediate proficiency. This ability may depend on the mapping [...] Read more.
In some languages, prosodic cues on word stems can be used to predict upcoming suffixes. Previous studies have shown that second language (L2) users can process such cues predictively in their L2 from approximately intermediate proficiency. This ability may depend on the mapping of the L2 prosody onto first language (L1) perceptual and functional prosodic categories. Taking as an example the Danish stød, a complex prosodic cue, we investigate an acquisition context of a predictive cue where L2 users are unfamiliar with both its perceptual correlates and its functionality. This differs from previous studies on predictive prosodic cues in Swedish and Spanish, where L2 users were only unfamiliar with either the perceptual make-up or functionality of the cue. In a speeded number judgement task, L2 users of Danish with German as their L1 (N = 39) and L1 users of Danish (N = 40) listened to noun stems with a prosodic feature (stød or non-stød) that either matched or mismatched the inflectional suffix (singular vs. plural). While L1 users efficiently utilised stød predictively for rapid and accurate grammatical processing, L2 users showed no such behaviour. These findings underscore the importance of mapping between L1 and L2 prosodic categories in second language acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Second Language Acquisition of Grammar from a Psycholinguistic Perspective)
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18 pages, 1374 KB  
Article
Learning Environment and Learning Outcome: Evidence from Korean Subject–Predicate Honorific Agreement
by Gyu-Ho Shin, Boo Kyung Jung and Minseok Yang
Languages 2025, 10(8), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080180 - 26 Jul 2025
Viewed by 440
Abstract
This study examines the relationship between learning environments and learning outcomes in acquiring Korean as a language target. We compare two learner groups residing in the United States: English-speaking learners of Korean in foreign language contexts versus Korean heritage speakers. Both groups share [...] Read more.
This study examines the relationship between learning environments and learning outcomes in acquiring Korean as a language target. We compare two learner groups residing in the United States: English-speaking learners of Korean in foreign language contexts versus Korean heritage speakers. Both groups share English as their dominant language and receive similar tertiary-level instruction, yet differ in their language-learning profiles. We measure two groups’ comprehension behaviour involving Korean subject−predicate honorific agreement, focusing on two conditions manifesting a mismatch between the honorifiable status of a subject and the realisation of the honorific suffix in a predicate. Results from the acceptability judgement task revealed that (1) both learner groups rated the ungrammatical condition as more acceptable than native speakers did, (2) Korean heritage speakers rated the ungrammatical condition significantly lower than English-speaking learners, and (3) overall proficiency in Korean modulated learners’ evaluations of the ungrammatical condition in opposite directions between the groups. No between-group difference was found in the infelicitous-yet-grammatical condition. Results from reaction time measurement further showed that Korean heritage speakers responded considerably faster than English-speaking learners of Korean. These results underscore the critical role of broad usage experience—whether through home language exposure for heritage language speakers or formal instruction for foreign language learners—in shaping non-dominant language activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Usage-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition: Crosslinguistic Perspectives)
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15 pages, 336 KB  
Article
Mitigation, Rapport, and Identity Construction in Workplace Requests
by Spyridoula Bella
Languages 2025, 10(8), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080179 - 25 Jul 2025
Viewed by 406
Abstract
This study investigates how Greek professionals formulate upward requests and simultaneously manage rapport and workplace identity within hierarchical exchanges. The data comprise 400 written requests elicited through a discourse–completion task from 100 participants, supplemented by follow-up interviews. Integrating pragmatic perspectives on request mitigation [...] Read more.
This study investigates how Greek professionals formulate upward requests and simultaneously manage rapport and workplace identity within hierarchical exchanges. The data comprise 400 written requests elicited through a discourse–completion task from 100 participants, supplemented by follow-up interviews. Integrating pragmatic perspectives on request mitigation with Spencer-Oatey’s Rapport-Management model and a social constructionist perspective on identity, the analysis reveals a distinctive “direct-yet-mitigated” style: syntactically direct head acts (typically want- or need-statements) various mitigating devices. This mitigation enables speakers to preserve superiors’ face, assert entitlement, and invoke shared corporate goals in a single move. Crucially, rapport work is intertwined with identity construction. Strategic oscillation between deference and entitlement projects four recurrent professional personae: the deferential subordinate, the competent and deserving employee, the cooperative team-player, and the rights-aware negotiator. Speakers shift among these personae to calibrate relational distance, demonstrating that rapport management functions not merely as a politeness calculus but as a resource for dynamic identity performance. This study thus bridges micro-pragmatic choices and macro social meanings, showing how linguistic mitigation safeguards interpersonal harmony while scripting desirable workplace selves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)
18 pages, 346 KB  
Article
Stereotyped L1 English Speakers: Attitude of US Southerners Toward L2-Accented English
by Romy Ghanem, Yongzhi Miao, Shima Farhesh and Emil Ubaldo
Languages 2025, 10(8), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080178 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 511
Abstract
The present study investigates how US Southerners perceive second language (L2) speech by recruiting 170 undergraduate students who spoke Southern American English to listen to recordings of four speakers (US, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Saudi Arabian) and evaluate their attributes. The listeners were grouped [...] Read more.
The present study investigates how US Southerners perceive second language (L2) speech by recruiting 170 undergraduate students who spoke Southern American English to listen to recordings of four speakers (US, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Saudi Arabian) and evaluate their attributes. The listeners were grouped based on their ethnic affiliation: African American, Anglo-American, and Asian/Hispanic/multi-racial. A random half were primed, being asked questions about whether/how other people had negatively commented on their accents. Results showed no effect of priming on speech ratings. Moreover, whilst African American and Anglo-American listeners rated L2 speakers lower than the L1 speaker in almost all aspects, Asian/Hispanic/multi-racial listeners did not. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)
17 pages, 531 KB  
Article
Discourse Construction Mechanisms: An Eye-Tracking Study on L1, L2, and Heritage Speakers of Spanish
by Adriana Cruz, Inés Recio Fernández, Mathis Teucher, Pilar Valero Fernández and Óscar Loureda Lamas
Languages 2025, 10(8), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080177 - 22 Jul 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
This study explores the cognitive processing of discourse construction mechanisms in Spanish, focusing on counter-argumentative relations that involve anaphoric encapsulation through either pronominal (e.g., a pesar de ello) or lexical forms (e.g., a pesar de [NP]). These constructions combine procedural meaning [...] Read more.
This study explores the cognitive processing of discourse construction mechanisms in Spanish, focusing on counter-argumentative relations that involve anaphoric encapsulation through either pronominal (e.g., a pesar de ello) or lexical forms (e.g., a pesar de [NP]). These constructions combine procedural meaning with referential retrieval, placing complex demands on discourse integration. Using eye-tracking data from 77 participants across three speaker groups, namely, L1, heritage, and L2 speakers, this study yields three main findings: (1) nominal expressions do not incur greater processing effort than pronominal ones under optimal communicative conditions; (2) heritage and L2 speakers exhibit higher processing effort than L1 speakers due to less automatized processing of discourse cues; and (3) heritage speakers show greater difficulty than L2 speakers, particularly with pronominal forms, likely due to the lower transparency of procedurally encoded meanings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
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20 pages, 407 KB  
Article
Reducing the Asymmetry of Theta-Assignment to Third-Factor Principles
by Tao Xie
Languages 2025, 10(8), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10080176 - 22 Jul 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
This study focuses on the long-standing issue of θ-assignment in the generative enterprise literature. Despite the asymmetry of θ-assignment regarding structural positions (Head–Complement/Specifier–Head) being sanctioned by the Duality of Semantics, I argue that it is possible to eliminate the asymmetry in full accordance [...] Read more.
This study focuses on the long-standing issue of θ-assignment in the generative enterprise literature. Despite the asymmetry of θ-assignment regarding structural positions (Head–Complement/Specifier–Head) being sanctioned by the Duality of Semantics, I argue that it is possible to eliminate the asymmetry in full accordance with third-factor principles by proposing two independent frameworks. In the first framework, I propose that θ-assignment is executed by applying Minimal Search to locate the assigner and the assignee, where both the external argument and the internal argument receive the θ-role in the same way. In the second framework, which does not hinge on the assumptions or results of the first one, I propose that θ-assignment is a postsyntactical operation; thus, the Duality of Semantics, as well as concepts like θ-assignment in the syntax or θ-position, may be disregarded. For a proper θ-interpretation to be possible, the assigner and the assignee must be in the same transfer domain. Nonetheless, the empirical coverage of the Duality of Semantics is largely retained, suggesting merge can and must be simplest with respect to θ. Full article
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