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Agronomy
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Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition
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Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Irrigation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 February 2025 | Viewed by 13163

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Pantazis E. Georgiou

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Guest Editor
Laboratory of General and Agricultural Hydraulics and Land Reclamation, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling; surface and pressurized irrigation networks; pricing irrigation water; climate change; sustainable development goals (SDGs) and water management; water footprint and life cycle assessment (LCA)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Dimitrios K. Karpouzos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of General and Agricultural Hydraulics and Land Reclamation, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: water resources and irrigation systems management; optimization of irrigation networks; simulation and optimization models in water resources; irrigation management and scheduling; simulation of preferential flow; climate change and drought analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The contribution of irrigation is crucial in agriculture. Therefore, the sustainability of irrigated agriculture demands the efficient management of the available but limited water resources under the existing constraints. Water demand in irrigation is expected to increase in the near future, and it will be seriously impacted by climate change, specifically in arid and semi-arid areas. It is widely believed that an increase in irrigation water use efficiency is the key to addressing water shortage and reducing environmental problems. In this context, robust and optimal approaches are used for improving irrigation water efficiency, energy saving and crop productivity and mitigating economic losses from water scarcity.

This Special Issue calls for contributions on sustainable water management in irrigated agriculture, irrigation scheduling, crop allocation, crop production under full and deficit irrigation and optimal design of irrigation networks and on-farm irrigation systems. In addition, studies and best practices on irrigation use efficiency, economic solutions and policy measures for improving crop water productivity and environmental sustainability are also welcome.

Prof. Dr. Pantazis E. Georgiou
Prof. Dr. Dimitrios K. Karpouzos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sustainable water management and SDGs
  • water and energy saving
  • water scarcity and climate change
  • crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling
  • irrigation methods and systems—irrigation efficiency
  • crop water productivity
  • optimal irrigation networks—modern optimization methods
  • smart irrigation and IoT

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 4558 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Terminal Water Management in Irrigation District Using Water Balance and Genetic Algorithm
by Siyuan Zhao, Jing Chen, Dan Chen, Zhaohui Luo, Bo Bi, Lan Lin, Xinhao Du, Yuanyuan Liu and Qibing Xia
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 2987; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122987 - 15 Dec 2024
Viewed by 418
Abstract
Water delivery management in China’s irrigation districts has traditionally prioritized the main canal system, often overlooking the water-saving potential of the final canals and field irrigation, which offer substantial opportunities to enhance water use efficiency and conserve agricultural water resources. This study summarizes [...] Read more.
Water delivery management in China’s irrigation districts has traditionally prioritized the main canal system, often overlooking the water-saving potential of the final canals and field irrigation, which offer substantial opportunities to enhance water use efficiency and conserve agricultural water resources. This study summarizes and defines the integrated water management of final canals and field irrigation as terminal water management. An optimization method was developed to improve terminal water management, which includes optimizing irrigation quotas based on water balance and scheduling final canal water delivery to minimize seepage losses. A genetic algorithm was employed to solve the problem. The method was applied to the Hongjin irrigation district in Jiangsu Province, China. In 2020, paddy water management was observed, revealing that the irrigation amount for organic and traditional rice was 1113 mm and 956 mm, respectively. Conventional irrigation and water delivery practices have led to extensive drainage, significant rainwater wastage, and inefficient water use. The optimized irrigation quotas for organic and traditional rice resulted in water savings of 302.5 mm and 325.9 mm, respectively, compared to the 2020 monitored data. An irrigation event in early August during a 75% hydrological frequency year was selected as an example. With conventional scheduling, optimized final canal water delivery scheduling reduced the seepage losses from 6.3% to 4.6%, shortened the irrigation time from 17 h to 14 h, and stabilized canal flow rates. The proposed optimization method is a valuable tool for enhancing terminal water management and supporting better irrigation decisions in irrigation districts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 6452 KiB  
Article
Optimal Water and Nitrogen Regimes Increased Fruit Yield and Water Use Efficiency by Improving Root Characteristics of Drip-Fertigated Greenhouse Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
by Hanlong Feng, Zhiyao Dou, Wenhui Jiang, Hemat Mahmood, Zhenqi Liao, Zhijun Li and Junliang Fan
Agronomy 2024, 14(10), 2439; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102439 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1248
Abstract
The growth of root system directly affects the absorption and utilization of soil water and nitrogen, and understanding the responses of root characteristics to water and nitrogen regimes is thus crucial for optimizing water and nitrogen management. The root characteristics of each soil [...] Read more.
The growth of root system directly affects the absorption and utilization of soil water and nitrogen, and understanding the responses of root characteristics to water and nitrogen regimes is thus crucial for optimizing water and nitrogen management. The root characteristics of each soil layer, i.e., root length, root surface area, and root volume, as well as fruit yield and water use efficiency of greenhouse tomato under drip fertigation in response to different irrigation levels and nitrogen rates were explored in northwest China. There were four irrigation levels, i.e., 50% ETC (W1), 75% ETC (W2), 100% ETC (W3), and 125% ETC (W4), where ETC is the crop evapotranspiration, and four nitrogen rates, i.e., 0 kg ha−1 (N1), 150 kg ha−1 (N2), 250 kg ha−1 (N3), and 350 kg ha−1 (N4). The results showed that reasonable irrigation and nitrogen regimes (W3N3) significantly increased fruit yield by 31.64% and root length, root surface area, and root volume by 45.03%, 61.24%, and 148.21% compare to W3N1, respectively. The promoting effect of increasing irrigation level on root characteristics increased with soil depth and had the greatest increases in root volume by 27.07%, 123.43%, and 211.47% for the 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm soil layers, respectively. In addition, reducing irrigation level significantly increased the percentages of roots in the top soil by 29.71%, 26.77%, and 18.53% for root length, root surface area, and root volume, respectively. The reasonable nitrogen rate (N3) significantly increased fruit yield by 41.11%, water use efficiency by 34.42%, and root length, root surface area, and root volume by 40.42%, 41.44%, and 112.76%, respectively. The over-application of nitrogen (N4) reduced root characteristics of all soil layers, fruit yield, and water use efficiency. The promoting effect of increasing nitrogen rate on root length of each soil layer decreased with soil depth, by 71.01%, 48.96%, and 15.71% for 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm soil layers, respectively. Irrigation level was the main factor dominating the root growth of each soil layer. The correlation analysis showed that fruit yield had significantly positive correlations with root characteristics in all soil layers, while water use efficiency had significantly positive correlations with the percentages of root length and root surface area in the 0–10 cm soil layer. In conclusion, rational water and nitrogen regimes achieved better fruit yield by promoting root growth of greenhouse tomato, and the water use efficiency of greenhouse tomato was improved by increasing the root percentage in the topsoil layer to alleviate the adverse effects under water stress conditions. This study reveals how irrigation volume and nitrogen application can enhance tomato yield and water use efficiency by regulating root characteristics and vertical root distribution, providing support for understanding the response of root systems to changes in soil water and nitrogen conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 7782 KiB  
Article
Assessing Irrigation Efficiency Improvements in Paddy Fields Using Granular SWMM Simulations
by Junyoung Lee, Hyungjin Shin and Jeongho Han
Agronomy 2024, 14(10), 2384; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102384 - 15 Oct 2024
Viewed by 732
Abstract
As water scarcity intensifies due to climate change, improving the efficiency of agricultural water use has become increasingly critical. Current irrigation systems often experience significant water losses, especially in paddy fields in South Korea that largely rely on open-channel water supply networks. However, [...] Read more.
As water scarcity intensifies due to climate change, improving the efficiency of agricultural water use has become increasingly critical. Current irrigation systems often experience significant water losses, especially in paddy fields in South Korea that largely rely on open-channel water supply networks. However, previous studies have simulated irrigation improvement strategies by aggregating multiple paddy fields into larger unites rather than modeling them individually, which limits the accurate representation of field conditions. To address this limitation, we applied a granular simulation approach, collecting detailed input data through field surveys. Using this granular model, the study evaluated strategies to enhance irrigation efficiency in paddy fields serviced by the Baekma Agricultural Reservoir in South Korea. We assessed four scenarios: the current open-channel system, conversion of open channels to closed conduits, installation of farm ponds, and a combination of closed conduits and farm ponds. These scenarios were simulated using the Strom Water Management Model (SWMM), meticulously configured to represent individual paddy fields and channel networks. The results show that converting open channels to closed conduits increased irrigation efficiency by 5.4% compared to the current open-channel system. Combining closed conduits with farm ponds achieved the highest efficiency, although the independent effect of farm ponds was minimal. These findings suggested that converting open-channels to closed conduits was a highly effective solution for reducing water losses, while farm ponds played a limited role. This study provides valuable insights into the development of precise irrigation strategies, offering a detailed assessment of real-world conditions in paddy fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 3639 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Drip Irrigation and Nitrogen Levels on the Oil and Fatty Acid Composition of Sesame and Its Economic Analysis
by Ismail Tas, Sevim Akcura, Mahmut Kaplan, Barbara Jagosz, Atılgan Atılgan, Joanna Kocięcka, Roman Rolbiecki, Daniel Liberacki and Stanisław Rolbiecki
Agronomy 2024, 14(9), 2092; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14092092 - 13 Sep 2024
Viewed by 661
Abstract
One of the oldest oilseed crops is sesame, which is mainly cultivated due to its valuable oleic/linolenic fatty acid ratio. The application of precise irrigation and fertilisation is crucial to ensure the continuity and productivity of sesame production, especially in arid and semi-arid [...] Read more.
One of the oldest oilseed crops is sesame, which is mainly cultivated due to its valuable oleic/linolenic fatty acid ratio. The application of precise irrigation and fertilisation is crucial to ensure the continuity and productivity of sesame production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. This study aimed to determine the effect of drip irrigation and nitrogen levels on sesame’s oil and fatty acid composition. For this purpose, four nitrogen doses (N0: 0 kg ha−1, N30: 30 kg ha−1, N60: 60 kg ha−1 and N90: 90 kg ha−1) and three different irrigation water levels (I50, I75 and I100, which correspond to 50, 75 and 100% evaporation levels from the evaporation of the Class A pan) were applied. The highest oleic acid content (43.06%) was obtained for the I75N90 treatment. In the case of linoleic fatty acid, the greatest value (43.66%) was for I50N0 treatment. The effects of irrigation and nitrogen doses on oleic acid and linoleic acid content were inverse of each other. An increase in applied irrigation water increased the linoleic acid content. However, it caused a decrease in oleic acid content. Increasing the nitrogen dose increased the oleic acid content and caused a decrease in linoleic acid content. Furthermore, this study showed that the I50N60 treatment (50% Epan and a rate of 60 kg N ha−1) is the most effective for achieving high grain and oil yields in sesame cultivation. The results obtained provide practical guidance for farmers in sesame cultivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 2999 KiB  
Article
Impact of Irrigation Management Decisions on the Water Footprint of Processing Tomatoes in Southern Spain
by Gregorio Egea, Pedro Castro-Valdecantos, Eugenio Gómez-Durán, Teresa Munuera, Jesús M. Domínguez-Niño and Pedro A. Nortes
Agronomy 2024, 14(8), 1863; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081863 - 22 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1058
Abstract
The water footprint is an increasingly demanded environmental sustainability indicator for certifications and labels in agricultural production. Processing tomatoes are highly water-intensive, and existing studies on water footprint have uncertainties and do not consider the impact of different irrigation configurations (e.g., surface drip [...] Read more.
The water footprint is an increasingly demanded environmental sustainability indicator for certifications and labels in agricultural production. Processing tomatoes are highly water-intensive, and existing studies on water footprint have uncertainties and do not consider the impact of different irrigation configurations (e.g., surface drip irrigation (SDI) and subsurface drip irrigation (SSDI)) and irrigation strategies. This study presents a two-year experimental investigation to determine the water footprint of processing tomatoes grown in southern Spain (Andalusia) and the impact of SSDI and deficit irrigation. Five irrigation treatments were established: SDI1 (surface drip irrigation without water limitation), SDI2 (surface drip irrigation without water limitation adjusted by soil moisture readings), SSDI1 (subsurface drip irrigation without water limitation and a dripline depth of 15 cm), SSDI2 (similar to SSDI1 but with mild/moderate water deficit during the fruit ripening stage), and SSDI3 (subsurface drip irrigation without water limitation and a dripline depth of 35 cm (first year) and 25 cm (second year)). Measurements included crop vegetative growth, leaf water potential, leaf gas exchange, nitrate concentration in soil solution, and crop yield and quality. The soil water balance components (actual evaporation, actual transpiration, deep drainage), necessary for determining the total crop water footprint, were simulated on a daily scale using Hydrus 2D software. Results indicated that SSDI makes more efficient use of irrigation water than SDI. The water footprint of SSDI1 was 20–35% lower than that of SDI1. SSDI2 showed similar water footprint values to SDI1 under highly demanding environmental conditions and significantly lower values (≈40%) in a year with lower evaporative demand. The dripline depth in SSDI was critical to the water footprint. With a 35 cm installation depth, SSDI3 had a significantly higher water footprint than the other treatments, while the values were similar to SSDI1 when the depth was reduced to 25 cm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 3280 KiB  
Article
Irrigation of ‘Prata-Anã’ Banana with Partial Root-Zone Drying in a Semi-Arid Environment
by Felipe Pires de Almeida, Marcelo Rocha dos Santos, Eugênio Ferreira Coelho, Sérgio Luiz Rodrigues Donato, Polyanna Mara de Oliveira, João Batista Ribeiro da Silva Reis, Luiz Antonio Conceição de Carvalho, José Carlos Lopes de Lima, Dionei Lima Santos and Fernando França da Cunha
Agronomy 2024, 14(8), 1820; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081820 - 17 Aug 2024
Viewed by 904
Abstract
Considering the uncertainty of rainfall and prolonged droughts in semiarid regions, optimizing water management through techniques like partial root-zone drying (PRD) is crucial for sustainable banana production. This study aimed to evaluate the ‘Prata-Anã Gorutuba’ banana under irrigation by PRD. The experimental design [...] Read more.
Considering the uncertainty of rainfall and prolonged droughts in semiarid regions, optimizing water management through techniques like partial root-zone drying (PRD) is crucial for sustainable banana production. This study aimed to evaluate the ‘Prata-Anã Gorutuba’ banana under irrigation by PRD. The experimental design was randomized blocks with five irrigation strategies (PRD7 50%–50% ETc and 7-day frequency of alternation of the irrigated side—FA, PRD14 50%–50% ETc and 14-day FA, PRD21 50%–50% ETc and 21-day FA, FX 50%–50% ETc and fixed irrigation, and irrigation with 100% ETc on both sides of the plant—FULL) with five replicates. Soil water content, physiological, vegetative, yield characteristics, and water productivity were assessed over two production cycles. PRD on the dry side lowered soil water content below optimal levels for banana cultivation, increased transpiration, and decreased photosynthesis and instantaneous water use efficiency with rising temperatures, while photosynthesis increased with stomatal conductance. PRD reduced plant vigor and delayed flowering in the first cycle. Compared to full and fixed irrigation, PRD conserves water while maintaining crop yields. Water productivity was higher under PRD, with PRD14 (50% ETc and 14-day alternation) offering the best water use efficiency while maintaining yield, making it suitable for ‘Prata-Anã Gorutuba’ banana cultivation. The study recommends PRD for sustainable banana farming in regions with limited water resources, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices and better water management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 8645 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Winter Irrigation under Freeze–Thaw Conditions: A Case Study of the Yellow River Delta, China
by Yuyang Shan, Ge Li, Yungang Bai, Qiuping Fu, Yan Sun, Lijun Su, Weiyi Mu and Hongbo Liu
Agronomy 2023, 13(7), 1743; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071743 - 28 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1326
Abstract
Optimal winter irrigation may be an alternative method for controlling soil salinization under seasonal freezing and thawing conditions in the Yellow River Delta. However, few studies have focused on optimal winter irrigation based on the dynamics of soil water, heat, and salt during [...] Read more.
Optimal winter irrigation may be an alternative method for controlling soil salinization under seasonal freezing and thawing conditions in the Yellow River Delta. However, few studies have focused on optimal winter irrigation based on the dynamics of soil water, heat, and salt during the freezing–thawing period in this region. Taking the seedling stage of winter wheat in the Yellow River Delta as the research object and using observation data of hydrothermal salt from the Shandong agricultural high-tech demonstration base from 17 October 2019 to 15 June 2021, a numerical simulation of the hydrothermal coupling process of freeze–thaw soil in the experimental area was carried out through the Simultaneous Heat and Water Model (SHAW). The simulation results of the model were evaluated according to the mean error (ME), root mean square error (RMSE), and Nash efficiency coefficient (NSE). The results showed that the SHAW can well simulate the soil moisture (SM), soil temperature, and soil salt during the growth of winter wheat in this region: the SM at the depth of 0–80 cm with an ME < 0.038 cm3 cm−3, RMSE < 0.064 cm3 cm−3, and NSE > 0.669; the soil temperature with an ME < 1.311 °C, RMSE < 1.493 °C, and NSE > 0.738; and the soil salinity with an ME < 0.005 g kg−1, RMSE < 0.014 g kg−1, and NSE > 0.607. Moreover, the model was used to simulate the distribution of soil water and salt in the winter wheat seedling stage under different winter irrigation methods during wet, normal, and dry years. It was suggested that the appropriate winter irrigation amount was 80 mm in wet years and normal years and 100 mm in dry years, which could be beneficial to winter wheat growth during the seedling stage. These results provide a reference for irrigation optimization in the Yellow River Delta and other similar areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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31 pages, 6586 KiB  
Article
Optimal Pollution Control and Pump-and-Fertilize Strategies in a Nitro-Polluted Aquifer, Using Genetic Algorithms and Modflow
by Yiannis N. Kontos, Ioakeim Rompis and Dimitrios Karpouzos
Agronomy 2023, 13(6), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13061534 - 31 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2217
Abstract
Nitro-pollution in a confined aquifer may originate from its recharge area, e.g., agricultural sites, animal feedlots, septic tanks, and other waste disposal sites or from treated wastewater recharge wells. The latter case is studied. Existing water supply pumping wells should be protected for [...] Read more.
Nitro-pollution in a confined aquifer may originate from its recharge area, e.g., agricultural sites, animal feedlots, septic tanks, and other waste disposal sites or from treated wastewater recharge wells. The latter case is studied. Existing water supply pumping wells should be protected for a given period. Instead of typically investigating optimal pump-and-treat or hydrodynamic pollution control management/remediation strategies, a novel combined pollution control and pump-and-fertilize (PAF) approach is proposed: protect existing wells with additional wells, considering pumped nitro-polluted groundwater as profitable reusable fertilizer rather than a pollutant to be remediated; convey pumped polluted water to an irrigation reservoir, considering nitrogen (N) uptake by irrigated crops in nearby farmlands and proportional decrease in fertilizer application, meaning profit. Optimization entails the operation of optimally located additional pumping wells with optimal flow rates, minimizing the sum of (i) annual pumping cost, (ii) pipe network (connecting additional wells and reservoir) amortization cost, and (iii) profit from retrieved N reuse. Modflow simulates a 3D flow field and advection-dispersion mass transport, while Genetic Algorithms (GAs) handle optimization. Various scenarios are simulated concerning crops’ retrieved N root uptake percentage, fertilizer, and energy market prices. The paper provides a data-ready optimization/decision support tool that creates a pool of alternative (sub)optimal management solutions/strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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Review

Jump to: Research

16 pages, 1926 KiB  
Review
Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Irrigation Water Requirements under Mediterranean Conditions—A Review of the Methodological Approaches Focusing on Maize Crop
by Daniela Soares, Teresa A. Paço and João Rolim
Agronomy 2023, 13(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13010117 - 29 Dec 2022
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3506
Abstract
Climate change is a challenging fact influencing diverse sectors in society including the agricultural one, which is heavily dependent on natural resources and climate. In the Mediterranean region, climate change-related increases in air temperature, and in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather [...] Read more.
Climate change is a challenging fact influencing diverse sectors in society including the agricultural one, which is heavily dependent on natural resources and climate. In the Mediterranean region, climate change-related increases in air temperature, and in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as droughts, boost the pressure on the agricultural systems and affect crop yield potential. The growth of the world population implies that production needs to increase in a sustainable manner. Therefore, this study focuses on the maize crop due to its importance for food security and because it is a crop with significant water consumption that occupies a large worldwide area. In order to study climate change impacts on crop production, plant water requirements, and provide farmers guidelines helping them to adapt, it is necessary to simultaneously evaluate a large number of factors. For this reason, modelling tools are normally used to measure the future impact of climate change on crop yield by using historical and future climate data. This review focuses on climate change impacts on maize crop irrigation requirements and compares—by means of critical analysis—existing approaches that allow for the building a set of mitigation and adaptation measures throughout the study of climate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Water Management and Sustainability in Irrigated Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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