Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 January 2025 | Viewed by 23144

Special Issue Editor


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Guest Editor
Voxar Labs, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Interests: computer vision; virtual reality; augmented reality; embedded systems; robotics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

Extended Reality (XR) encompasses technologies that allow humans or physical objects to interact with computer-generated virtual imagery in real-time. In Virtual Reality (VR), the user is completely immersed in a virtual environment, while Augmented Reality (AR) overlays virtual content on the real world. Mixed Reality (MR) goes beyond that and can anchor such virtual content in the real world.

Past XR research applications have mainly focused on:

  • Education: works regarding education, learning, training, and other related areas;
  • Health: works regarding medicine, physiotherapy, phobia treatments, and other related areas;
  • Industry: works regarding improvement in industrial production, quality of processes in manufacturing processes, and other related areas;
  • Games: works targeting games and entertainment related areas.

This Special Issue calls for interesting studies, applications, and experiences that will open up new uses of XR. In addition to research that has steadily improved existing issues, we welcome research papers that present new possibilities of VR, AR, and MR. Topics of interest include but are not limited to the following:

  • VR/AR/MR systems, frameworks, and toolkits.
  • 3D interaction.
  • Input devices for VR/AR/MR.
  • Haptics, audio, and other non-visual interfaces.
  • User studies and evaluation.
  • Tracking and sensing.
  • Computer graphics techniques for VR/AR/MR.
  • Immersive gaming/serious games.
  • Virtual humans and avatars.
  • Advanced display technology.
  • Immersive projection technology.
  • Multi-user and distributed VR/AR/MR.
  • Perception, presence, and cognition in VR/AR/MR.
  • Teleoperation and telepresence.
  • Immersive and situated visualization.
  • Social, economic, and technical impacts of VR/AR/MR.

Dr. João Marcelo Teixeira
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • VR/AR/MR systems, frameworks, and toolkits
  • input devices for VR/AR/MR
  • computer graphics techniques for VR/AR/MR
  • multi-user and distributed VR/AR/MR
  • perception, presence, and cognition in VR/AR/MR
  • social, economic, and technical impacts of VR/AR/MR

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 2319 KiB  
Article
Augmented Reality Improved Knowledge and Efficiency of Root Canal Anatomy Learning: A Comparative Study
by Fahd Alsalleeh, Katsushi Okazaki, Sarah Alkahtany, Fatemah Alrwais, Mohammad Bendahmash and Ra’ed Al Sadhan
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6813; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156813 - 4 Aug 2024
Viewed by 565
Abstract
Teaching root canal anatomy has traditionally been reliant on static methods, but recent studies have explored the potential of advanced technologies like augmented reality (AR) to enhance learning and address the limitations of traditional training methods, such as the requirement for spatial imagination [...] Read more.
Teaching root canal anatomy has traditionally been reliant on static methods, but recent studies have explored the potential of advanced technologies like augmented reality (AR) to enhance learning and address the limitations of traditional training methods, such as the requirement for spatial imagination and the inability to simulate clinical scenarios fully. This study evaluated the potential of AR as a tool for teaching root canal anatomy in preclinical training in endodontics for predoctoral dental students. Six cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) images of teeth were selected. Board-certified endodontist and radiologist recorded the tooth type and classification of root canals. Then, STereoLithography (STL) files of the same images were imported into a virtual reality (VR) application and viewed through a VR head-mounted display. Forty-three third-year dental students were asked questions about root canal anatomy based on the CBCT images, and then, after the AR model. The time to respond to each question and feedback was recorded. Student responses were paired, and the difference between CBCT and AR scores was examined using a paired-sample t-test and set to p = 0.05. Students demonstrated a significant improvement in their ability to answer questions about root canal anatomy after utilizing the AR model (p < 0.05). Female participants demonstrated significantly higher AR scores compared to male participants. However, gender did not significantly influence overall test scores. Furthermore, students required significantly less time to answer questions after using the AR model (M = 4.09, SD = 3.55) compared to the CBCT method (M = 15.21, SD = 8.01) (p < 0.05). This indicates that AR may improve learning efficiency alongside comprehension. In a positive feedback survey, 93% of students reported that the AR simulation led to a better understanding of root canal anatomy than traditional CBCT interpretation. While this study highlights the potential of AR in learning root canal anatomy, further research is needed to explore its long-term impact and efficacy in clinical settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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26 pages, 4400 KiB  
Article
Nuclear Medicine Radiological Hot Laboratory Simulation: A Mixed-Method Intervention Study on Immersive Virtual Reality for Sustainable Education
by Suphalak Khamruang Marshall, Nantakorn Sirieak, Pornchanok Karnkorn, Virunyupa Keawtong, Awatif Hayeeabdunromae, Nadia Noomad, Wanita Durawee and Jongwat Cheewakul
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 5041; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125041 - 10 Jun 2024
Viewed by 3941
Abstract
The traditional training methods in radiological hot laboratories involve significant challenges, including the risk of radiation exposure and the development of radiophobia among learners. Virtual reality (VR) presents an innovative educational solution by simulating realistic hot lab environments and procedures without associated risks. [...] Read more.
The traditional training methods in radiological hot laboratories involve significant challenges, including the risk of radiation exposure and the development of radiophobia among learners. Virtual reality (VR) presents an innovative educational solution by simulating realistic hot lab environments and procedures without associated risks. This mixed-method study investigates the efficacy of VR in enhancing cognitive retention and practical skills and reducing radiophobia among students. All participants (video and VR cohorts) were given a pre-test, same-day training post-test, after 1 month, and after 3 months. In the 3-month test, 13% of the control group scored > 80%, and 87% of the VR group scored > 80% (6.69-fold more significant). VR simulated the real-world hot lab more accurately than training videos, resulting in increased confidence and safety. Resulting in the control group (video training), radiophobia decreased by 1.52-fold; in contrast, the VR training group reduced by 2.42-fold. These reductions indicate that VR training was significantly more effective in reducing radiophobia than traditional video training. VR enhanced knowledge retention, reduced radiophobia, increased safety confidence, and reduced fear about pursuing a career in nuclear medicine. Overall, VR created a safer working environment, and RT students responded more positively than the instruction videos. Consequently, a mixed-method study revealed key codes of engagement, easy understanding, memory, safety, confidence, learning experiences, implementation in the curriculum, and getting ready for clinical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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15 pages, 779 KiB  
Article
Beyond Sight: Enhancing Augmented Reality Interactivity with Audio-Based and Non-Visual Interfaces
by Jingya Li
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4881; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114881 - 4 Jun 2024
Viewed by 739
Abstract
Augmented Reality (AR) is rapidly advancing, with a new focus on broadening accessibility beyond the visually dominant interfaces. This study explores the integration of audio-based non-visual interfaces within AR, aiming to cater to a diverse audience, including users with visual impairments. The objective [...] Read more.
Augmented Reality (AR) is rapidly advancing, with a new focus on broadening accessibility beyond the visually dominant interfaces. This study explores the integration of audio-based non-visual interfaces within AR, aiming to cater to a diverse audience, including users with visual impairments. The objective was to develop a prototype that leverages audio feedback to facilitate interaction with the AR environment, enhancing spatial awareness and mental imagery for all users without relying on visual cues. Employing a user-centered design approach, we conducted a comprehensive evaluation with university students to assess the prototype’s usability and immersive potential compared to traditional touchscreen interfaces. The findings highlighted a pronounced preference for the Audio-Based Natural Interface, emphasizing its capacity to provide an intuitive and immersive AR experience through sound alone. These results underline the potential of audio feedback in creating more inclusive AR experiences, suggesting a paradigm shift towards developing AR technologies that are accessible to a wider user base. Our study concludes that audio-based non-visual interfaces represent a viable and innovative direction for AR development, advocating for their further exploration to ensure AR’s universality and inclusivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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22 pages, 3826 KiB  
Article
Creating Interactive Scenes in 3D Educational Games: Using Narrative and Technology to Explore History and Culture
by Rafał Kaźmierczak, Robert Skowroński, Cezary Kowalczyk and Grzegorz Grunwald
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4795; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114795 - 1 Jun 2024
Viewed by 571
Abstract
Three-dimensional games are an indispensable tool in education and cultural transmission, offering users immersive experiences that facilitate learning through engagement and direct experience. The aim of this study was to design and implement an advanced cutscene sequencer in Unity 3D, targeted at educational [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional games are an indispensable tool in education and cultural transmission, offering users immersive experiences that facilitate learning through engagement and direct experience. The aim of this study was to design and implement an advanced cutscene sequencer in Unity 3D, targeted at educational and cultural games, to assist game developers in producing cinematic interludes, which are a key narrative element in games. The project methodology encompassed a detailed process of planning, design, and implementation. This involved the comprehensive use of various tools, including Unity 3D for game development, C# for scripting, Visual Studio for integrated development, Git for version control, Blender for 3D modeling, Substance Painter for texturing, and Audacity for audio editing. These tools collectively facilitated the development of a robust cutscene sequencer system designed to create engaging and dynamic narrative scenes. The project’s results indicate that the use of an advanced sequencer can significantly impact the efficiency and creativity of the game and educational material creation process, offering developers the opportunity to explore practically unlimited viewing perspectives. This tool enables the creation of rich and diverse visual experiences, which is crucial for engaging and educating players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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20 pages, 3314 KiB  
Article
Impact of Augmented Reality on Assistance and Training in Industry 4.0: Qualitative Evaluation and Meta-Analysis
by Ginés Morales Méndez and Francisco del Cerro Velázquez
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4564; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114564 - 26 May 2024
Viewed by 881
Abstract
In the context of Industry 4.0, industrial environments are at a crossroads, facing the challenge of greater flexibility and significant technical skills gaps. In this situs, Augmented Reality (AR) emerges as a transformative tool, enhancing the synergy between technical staff and emerging technologies. [...] Read more.
In the context of Industry 4.0, industrial environments are at a crossroads, facing the challenge of greater flexibility and significant technical skills gaps. In this situs, Augmented Reality (AR) emerges as a transformative tool, enhancing the synergy between technical staff and emerging technologies. This article focuses on exploring the integration of AR in Industry 4.0, with a particular emphasis on its role in improving technical assistance and training. The research addresses the ways in which AR not only facilitates more efficient processes but also acts as an essential bridge for training and skills development in constantly changing technological environments. It investigates the significant impact of AR on both optimising work processes and training workers to meet the emerging challenges of Industry 4.0. Through a qualitative analysis, the studies are categorised according to their application domains, grouping them into specific thematic areas. Subsequently, a meta-analysis is conducted to determine the actual impact of AR in the sector. The findings reveal a positive and significant correlation between the implementation of AR and its effectiveness in assistance and training in the framework of Industry 4.0. Finally, the article delves into an analysis of current limitations and challenges, providing insights into possible developments and trends in the use of AR for assistance and training in Industry 4.0. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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21 pages, 9444 KiB  
Article
Indoor AR Navigation Framework Based on Geofencing and Image-Tracking with Accumulated Error Correction
by Min Lu, Masatoshi Arikawa, Kohei Oba, Keiichi Ishikawa, Yuhan Jin, Tomihiro Utsumi and Ryo Sato
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(10), 4262; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104262 - 17 May 2024
Viewed by 626
Abstract
This study presents a novel framework for improving indoor augmented reality (AR) navigation with modern smartphone technology, which is achieved by addressing two major challenges: managing large absolute coordinate spaces and reducing error accumulation in camera-based spatial tracking. Our contribution is significant in [...] Read more.
This study presents a novel framework for improving indoor augmented reality (AR) navigation with modern smartphone technology, which is achieved by addressing two major challenges: managing large absolute coordinate spaces and reducing error accumulation in camera-based spatial tracking. Our contribution is significant in two ways. First, we integrate geofencing with indoor navigation by considering spatial tracking errors, timing for audio guidance, and dynamic 3D arrow visualization for effective local-to-global spatial coordinate transformation. This method achieves precise local positioning and seamlessly integrates with larger spatial contexts, overcoming the limitations of current AR systems. Second, we introduce a periodic image-based calibration approach to minimize the inherent error accumulation in camera-based tracking, enhancing accuracy over longer distances. Unlike prior studies focusing on individual technologies, our work explores the software architecture of indoor AR navigation by providing a comprehensive framework for its design and practical use. The practicality of our approach is validated through the implementation of a smartphone application at the Mineral Industry Museum of Akita University, highlighting the limitations of component technologies and demonstrating our framework’s effectiveness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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24 pages, 13922 KiB  
Article
A Novel Method Using 3D Interest Points to Place Markers on a Large Object in Augmented Reality
by Su Young Kim and Yoon Sang Kim
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020941 - 22 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 968
Abstract
Multiple markers are generally used in augmented reality (AR) applications that require accurate registration, such as medical and industrial fields. In AR using these markers, there are two inevitable problems: (1) geometric shape discrepancies between a real object and a virtual object, and [...] Read more.
Multiple markers are generally used in augmented reality (AR) applications that require accurate registration, such as medical and industrial fields. In AR using these markers, there are two inevitable problems: (1) geometric shape discrepancies between a real object and a virtual object, and (2) the relative positions of the markers placed on the virtual object and markers placed on the real object are not consistent. However, studies on applying multiple markers to a large object are still insufficient. Additionally, most studies did not consider these inevitable problems because the markers were subjectively placed (hereafter conventional method). In consideration of these problems, this paper proposes a method for placing multiple markers to provide accurate registration on a large object. The proposed method divides a virtual object evenly and determines the positions of multiple markers automatically using 3D interest points within the divided areas. The proposed method was validated through a performance comparison with the conventional method of subjectively placing markers, and it was confirmed to have more accurate registration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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24 pages, 8563 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Physical Stress across Task Difficulty Levels in Augmented Reality-Assisted Industrial Maintenance
by Faisal M. Alessa, Mohammed H. Alhaag, Ibrahim M. Al-harkan, Mustafa M. Nasr, Husam Kaid and Nacereddine Hammami
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010363 - 30 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1170
Abstract
Many studies have revealed the benefits of augmented reality (AR) to enhance productivity and fulfill a quality function in industry. Yet, the potential adverse effects of AR, such as physical stress, have not been extensively studied. This study investigates the effect of task [...] Read more.
Many studies have revealed the benefits of augmented reality (AR) to enhance productivity and fulfill a quality function in industry. Yet, the potential adverse effects of AR, such as physical stress, have not been extensively studied. This study investigates the effect of task difficulty (simple versus complex maintenance tasks) on the overall performance and physical stress of individuals while interacting with multimedia instructions (i.e., AR via HoloLens versus. paper-based guidance). Twenty-eight healthy male participants with a mean age of 32.12 years (standard deviation of 2.45 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: AR-based group and paper-based group. The metrics of total maintenance time, NASA-TLX scores, and heart rate variability (HRV) were used to evaluate overall performance, perceived workload, and physical stress, respectively. The findings suggest that AR-based instruction for a complex task significantly reduced both total maintenance time (by 14.94%) and physical stress in comparison with paper-based instruction. Paper-based instruction was found to destabilize heart rhythm, increase heart rate, and cause a shift in autonomic balance due to heightened sympathetic nerve activation. This study concludes that AR-based instruction is more efficient and less stressful than paper-based instruction, indicating that the AR system may offer independent benefits in reducing physical workloads. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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31 pages, 8611 KiB  
Article
Immersive Phobia Therapy through Adaptive Virtual Reality and Biofeedback
by Alin Moldoveanu, Oana Mitruț, Nicolae Jinga, Cătălin Petrescu, Florica Moldoveanu, Victor Asavei, Ana Magdalena Anghel and Livia Petrescu
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(18), 10365; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810365 - 16 Sep 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1966
Abstract
Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder characterized by severe fear of objects and situations. In recent years, virtual reality exposure therapy has emerged as a safer and more convenient method of treating phobias, with the same rate of success as classical therapy, [...] Read more.
Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder characterized by severe fear of objects and situations. In recent years, virtual reality exposure therapy has emerged as a safer and more convenient method of treating phobias, with the same rate of success as classical therapy, the in vivo exposure to stimuli. Following extensive research concerning the available technologies and after studying the state of the art in the field, we developed the PhoVR (Phobia therapy through Virtual Reality) system during a 2-year long project that involved the participation of a technical university, a biology faculty, and an industry partner specialized in designing 3D applications. Our final prototype incorporates scenarios for acrophobia, claustrophobia, and fear of public speaking therapy, in which the user is required to perform gamified tasks and navigate virtual reality environments with biophysical data acquisition (electrodermal activity and heart rate), automatic anxiety level classification, biofeedback integrated into the scenes’ elements, the dynamic adaptation of the virtual environments, and relaxation techniques made available at any moment. The control panel is an application dedicated to psychotherapists for managing patients’ profiles and therapy sessions. The feedback obtained in a qualitative survey with subjects and psychotherapists who evaluated the prototype validated the system and provided suggestions for refinement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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18 pages, 12412 KiB  
Article
Towards Digital Twins of 3D Reconstructed Apparel Models with an End-to-End Mobile Visualization
by Surasachai Doungtap, Jirayu Petchhan, Varinya Phanichraksaphong and Jenq-Haur Wang
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(15), 8571; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158571 - 25 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1840
Abstract
Digital twin technologies are still developing and are being increasingly leveraged to facilitate daily life activities. This study presents a novel approach for leveraging the capability of mobile devices for photo collection, cloud processing, and deep learning-based 3D generation, with seamless display in [...] Read more.
Digital twin technologies are still developing and are being increasingly leveraged to facilitate daily life activities. This study presents a novel approach for leveraging the capability of mobile devices for photo collection, cloud processing, and deep learning-based 3D generation, with seamless display in virtual reality (VR) wearables. The purpose of our study is to provide a system that makes use of cloud computing resources to offload the resource-intensive activities of 3D reconstruction and deep-learning-based scene interpretation. We establish an end-to-end pipeline from 2D to 3D reconstruction, which automatically builds accurate 3D models from collected photographs using sophisticated deep-learning techniques. These models are then converted to a VR-compatible format, allowing for immersive and interactive experiences on wearable devices. Our findings attest to the completion of 3D entities regenerated by the CAP–UDF model using ShapeNetCars and Deep Fashion 3D datasets with a discrepancy in L2 Chamfer distance of only 0.089 and 0.129, respectively. Furthermore, the demonstration of the end-to-end process from 2D capture to 3D visualization on VR occurs continuously. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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20 pages, 3358 KiB  
Article
Influence of Virtual Reality on User Evaluation of Prototypes in the Development Process—A Comparative Study with Control Rooms for Onshore Drilling Rigs
by Niels Hinricher, Simon König, Chris Schröer and Claus Backhaus
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8319; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148319 - 18 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1193
Abstract
User evaluations of prototypes in virtual reality (VR) offer high potential for products that require resource-intensive prototype construction, such as drilling rigs. This study examined whether the user evaluation of a VR prototype for controlling an onshore drilling rigproduces results comparable to an [...] Read more.
User evaluations of prototypes in virtual reality (VR) offer high potential for products that require resource-intensive prototype construction, such as drilling rigs. This study examined whether the user evaluation of a VR prototype for controlling an onshore drilling rigproduces results comparable to an evaluation in the real world. Using a between-subject design, 16 drilling experts tested a prototype in VR and reality. The experts performed three different work processes and evaluated their satisfaction based on task performance, user experience, and usability via standardized questionnaires. A test leader evaluated the effectiveness of the work process execution using a 3-level rating scheme. The number of user interactions and time on task were recorded. There were no significant differences in the effectiveness, number of interactions required, perceived usability, and satisfaction with respect to task performance. In VR, the drilling experts took significantly more time to complete tasks and rated the efficiency of the VR prototype significantly higher. Overall, the real-world evaluation provided more insights into prototype optimization. Nevertheless, several usability issues have been identified in VR. Therefore, user evaluations in VR are particularly suitable in the early development phases to identify usability issues, without the need to produce real prototypes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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Review

Jump to: Research

35 pages, 6656 KiB  
Review
Augmented Reality: Survey
by Carlos E. Mendoza-Ramírez, Juan C. Tudon-Martinez, Luis C. Félix-Herrán, Jorge de J. Lozoya-Santos and Adriana Vargas-Martínez
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(18), 10491; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810491 - 20 Sep 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7617
Abstract
An Augmented Reality (AR) system is a technology that overlays digital information, such as images, sounds, or text, onto a user’s view of the real world, providing an enriched and interactive experience of the surrounding environment. It has evolved into a potent instrument [...] Read more.
An Augmented Reality (AR) system is a technology that overlays digital information, such as images, sounds, or text, onto a user’s view of the real world, providing an enriched and interactive experience of the surrounding environment. It has evolved into a potent instrument for improving human perception and decision-making across various domains, including industrial, automotive, healthcare, and urban planning. This systematic literature review aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of AR technology, its limitations, and implementation challenges in the most significant areas of application in engineering and beyond. The review will explore the state-of-the-art AR techniques, their potential use cases, and the barriers to widespread adoption, while also identifying future research directions and opportunities for innovation in the rapidly evolving field of augmented reality. This study works as a compilation of the existing technologies in the subject, especially useful for beginners in AR or as a starting point for developers who seek to innovate or implement new technologies, thus knowing the limitations and current challenges that could arise. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual/Augmented Reality and Its Applications)
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