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State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2024) | Viewed by 16701

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Dr. Alessandro Lo Schiavo

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Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Via Roma, 81031 Aversa, CE, Italy
Interests: analysis and design of analog circuits; RF communication circuits; nonlinear circuit theory; circuit simulation; wireless sensor networks and electronic circuits for energy harvesting
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Dear Colleagues,

One of the most challenging issues in the design of Internet of Things (IoT)-based devices and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is the powering of the sensor nodes. Since these nodes are usually numerous and distributed within a large area, the wiring is complex, expensive and completely impractical. Energy can be drawn by disposable batteries, but these are characterized by a high environmental impact, limited reliability and high maintenance costs. An alternative eco-friendly solution is represented by energy harvesting supply systems, which are able to locally convert otherwise wasted forms of energy available in the surrounding environment into electricity. Energy harvesting systems generally comprise an energy-harvesting device that scavenges energy from ambient sources and a power management electronic circuit that maximizes power extraction and optimizes power distribution. Many types of harvesting devices have been developed to scavenge energy from different sources of energy, including sun, wind, vibrations, rainfall, electromagnetic fields, and so on. Hybrid energy harvesting devices have also been devised with the aim of scavenging energy from multiple energy sources by exploiting various energy conversion mechanisms. In addition to an energy harvesting device dedicated to energy conversion, an energy harvesting supply system requires the integration of a power management electronic circuit into the device to provide voltage rectification, extract energy maximization and optimize power distribution in the sensor node.

Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to:

Piezoelectric energy harvesting;
Electromagnetic energy harvesting;
Micro-wind energy harvesting;
Micro-solar energy harvesting;
Wearable energy harvesting;
Hybrid energy harvesting;
Circuits for energy harvesting;
Synchronized Switching Harvesting on an Inductor (SSHI);
Synchronous Electric Charge Extraction (SECE);
Maximum power point tracking techniques;
Low-power electronics.

Dr. Alessandro Lo Schiavo
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 8723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling a Wave Energy Harvester for Supplying Data Buoys

by Alessandro Lo Schiavo, Filippo Nicora and Corrado Boragno

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(16), 7019; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167019 - 9 Aug 2024

Viewed by 796

Abstract

An energy harvester scavenging the kinetic energy of fluctuating waves for supplying small sea monitoring buoys is studied and tested. The harvester exploits a magnetic cylinder that rolls on a track due to the pitching motion of the buoy. The electromagnetic coupling between the rolling magnet and pairs of coils placed along the track generates an electromotive force used to supply a DC load through a bridge rectifier. The considered harvester is characterized by low-cost, simplicity, lightness and efficiency. An analytical model of the harvester is presented to investigate its operating conditions and to predict its nonlinear dynamic behavior. The operating mode of the energy harvester named bang-bang is studied in depth as it allows maximizing the extracted power, and analytical equations that characterize the behavior of the harvester in this operating mode are deduced. A prototype of the energy harvester was built and tested in order to identify the model parameters and to validate the theoretical results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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16 pages, 4355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Robust Generator–Harvester for Independent Sensor Systems

by Jiří Zukal, Zoltán Szabó, Tomáš Kříž, Radim Kadlec, Jamila Dědková and Pavel Fiala

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(3), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14031246 - 2 Feb 2024

Viewed by 994

Abstract

The research is centered on energy production and harvesting to facilitate the transformation of electrical energy with energy-independent sensor systems, using powering devices in the expected power range of P = 10–10,000 W. A model application case for a harvester is the conversion of energy stored in the compressed gas during expansion; such gas embodies the energy stored in scenarios such as braking a car using an auxiliary pump. Similar systems find use in sensing various quantities in the transport sector (bridge structures, infrastructural components, cars, and other objects). The proposed theoretical harvester models describing the transformation of linear motion energy into electricity provide relevant support for the experiments. In the given context, the results obtained in the designing and construction of a robust motion generator with a primarily linear geometry-based system technology are presented, too. The expected output of electrical power of an N-segment harvester within the tested type is variable, and the design exploits the rectilinear motion generated by an engine using compressed air, a small fuel system, and similar options to obtain an expected/adjustable N-segment power in the range of P_sm = 10–500 W. The fundamental structure of the generator core has been continuously numerically modeled, and an experimental setup has been developed to analyze the specific parts and variations in order to validate the concept and to achieve the most suitable parameters with the selected construction materials (a power yield increase of up to 2000 times). A scaled-down version of the model principle was tested in the experiments, and the parameters and results were compared with the predicted theoretical analyses. Generally, the conceptual layout of an enhanced magnetic circuit layout transforming motion energy into electricity was presented and verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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12 pages, 3144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passively Tuning the Resonant Frequency of Kinetic Energy Harvesters Using Distributed Loaded Proof Mass

by Rahul Adhikari and Nathan Jackson

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010156 - 23 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1104

Abstract

The inability to tune the frequency of MEMS vibration energy-harvesting devices is considered to be a major challenge which is limiting the use of these devices in real world applications. Previous attempts are either not compatible with microfabrication, have large footprints, or use complex tuning methods which consume power. This paper reports on a novel passive method of tuning the frequency by embedding solid microparticle masses into a stationary proof mass with an array of cavities. Altering the location, density, and volume of embedded solid filler will affect the resonant frequency, resulting in tuning capabilities. The experimental and computational validation of changing and tuning the frequency are demonstrated. The change in frequency is caused by varying the location of the particle filler in the proof mass to alter the center of gravity. The goal of this study was to experimentally and numerically validate the concept using macro-scale piezoelectric energy-harvesting devices, and to determine key parameters that affect the resolution and range of the frequency-tuning capabilities. The experimental results demonstrated that the range of the frequency tuning for the particular piezoelectric cantilever that was used was between 20.3 Hz and 49.1 Hz. Computational simulations gave similar results of 23.7 Hz to 49.4 Hz. However, the tuning range could be increased by altering the proof mass and cantilever design, which resulted in a tuning range from 144.6 Hz to 30.2 Hz. The resolution of tuning the frequency was <0.1 Hz. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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19 pages, 5016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isotropic ΙoT-Based Magnetic Flux Density Meter Implementation for ELF Field Measurements

by Manolis G. Tampouratzis, George A. Adamidis, Demosthenes Vouyioukas, Traianos Yioultsis and Dimitrios Stratakis

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12730; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312730 - 27 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1714

Abstract

This article presents the basic principles for an Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) IoT-based isotropic meter implementation, which can measure magnetic flux density from 100 nT up to 10 μT. The identical sensor probes are used for isotropic field measurements in the X, Y, and Z planes. The prototype has a flat response across the frequency range from 40 Hz to 10 kHz, detecting and measuring several magnetic field sources. The proposed low-cost meter can measure fields from the power supply network and its harmonic frequencies in the operating frequency band. The proposed magnetic flux density meter circuit is simple to implement and the measured field can be displayed on any mobile device with Wi-Fi connectivity. An Arduino board with the embedded Wi-Fi Nina module is responsible for data transferring from the sensor to the cloud as a complete IoT solution, supported by the Blynk application via Android and iOS operating systems or web interface. In addition, an ELF energy harvesting (EH) circuit was also proposed in our study for the utilization of the alternating magnetic fields (50 Hz) derived from the operation of several consumer devices such as transformers, power supplies, hair dryers, etc. using low-consumption applications. Experimental measurements showed that the (DC) harvesting voltage can reach up to 4.2 volts from the magnetic field of 33 μΤ, caused by the operation of an electric hair dryer and can fully charge the 100 μF storage capacitor (C_s) of the proposed EH system in about 3 min. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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16 pages, 10027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Dynamics and Energy Harvesting of a Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Electromagnetic Energy Harvester near the Primary and Secondary Resonances

by Krzysztof Kecik and Ewelina Stezycka

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(13), 7613; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137613 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2326

Abstract

Energy harvesting is a useful technique for various kinds of self-powered electronic devices and systems as well as Internet of Things technology. This study presents a two-degrees-of-freedom (2DOF) electromagnetic energy harvester that can use environment vibration and provide energy for small electronic devices. The proposed harvester consists of a cylindrical tube with two moving magnets suspended by a magnetic spring mechanism and a stationary coil. In order to verify the theoretical model, a prototype electromagnetic harvester was constructed and tested. The influence of key parameters, including excitation acceleration, response to a harmonic frequency sweep, and electromechanical coupling on the generated characteristics of the harvester, was investigated. The experimental and theoretical results showed that the proposed electromagnetic energy harvester was able to increase the resonance bandwidth (60–1200 rad/s) and output power (0.2 W). However, due to strong nonlinearity, an unstable region occurred near the main first resonance, which resulted from the Neimark–Sacker bifurcation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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14 pages, 4540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of Visible Radiation through a Sansevieria cylindrica-Based “Living Sensor”

by Carlo Trigona, Ivana Puglisi, Andrea Baglieri and Anna M. Gueli

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(6), 3896; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063896 - 19 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

This research activity regards the development of a sensor based on a Sansevieria cylindrica plant for the measurement of visible radiation. The proposed solution, based on the adoption of a soil-plant system as a chemo-electrical transducer, goes beyond “classical” silicon-based approaches that are not biodegradable nor eco-friendly and that produce CO₂ from the production step to the disposal phase. It is worth noting that no toxicity can be associated with plants and, due to the natural process of photosynthesis, these systems, used as living sensors, are even able to absorb carbon dioxide from the environment. The working principle of the proposed device based on the metabolic processes of the natural organisms present in the living system, soil and plant, as a function of visible radiation will be presented here. Particular emphasis will be also given to the analysis of the visible radiation spectrum, the metrological characterization, the performance of the device, and the analyses in terms of insensitivity to other external physical quantities. The obtained results evince the suitability of the proposed device which presents the prerogative of being environmentally friendly, self-generating, battery-less, simple, mimetic, low-cost, non-toxic, and biodegradable. The aforementioned features pave the road for a disruptive technological approach for an ecological transition which can impact the variegated applied field, including in the security, cultural heritage, smart home, and smart agriculture aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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15 pages, 503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moment-Based Stochastic Analysis of a Bistable Energy Harvester with Matching Network

by Kailing Song, Michele Bonnin, Fabio L. Traversa and Fabrizio Bonani

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(6), 3880; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063880 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1281

Abstract

We discuss the analysis of a piezoelectric energy harvester for random mechanical vibrations, and we assess the performance improvement guaranteed by interposing a matching network between the transducer and the electrical load, in terms of average output power and power efficiency. The mathematical model describing the harvester is a system of stochastic differential equations, where both cases of linear and nonlinear devices are considered. In the linear case, the power delivered to the load is increased by a factor of about 20 with respect to the direct connection, with a similar increase in the conversion efficiency. In the nonlinear case, we use a moment closure technique to calculate the first- and second-order moments of the electro-mechanical variables in the weak noise limit. Moment calculation is used to determine the optimal values of the matching network components that maximize the performance. In the strong noise limit, the state equations are integrated numerically to determine the same performance metrics. Our analysis shows that a properly designed matching network improves the performance by a significant amount, especially at low noise intensity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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21 pages, 13258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification Procedure for Design Optimization of Gravitational Electromagnetic Energy Harvesters

by Mirco Lo Monaco, Caterina Russo and Aurelio Somà

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042736 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1916

Abstract

Energy harvesting is a promising technique for supplying low-power devices as an alternative to conventional batteries. Energy harvesters can be integrated into Autonomous Internet of Things (AIoT) systems to create a wireless network of sensor nodes for real-time monitoring of assets. This paper shows a design and optimization methodology for gravitational vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvesters (GVEHs) of different sizes considering the design constraints of its real application. The configuration, analytical model, and electro-mechanical coupling of these devices are described in detail. A numerical model is developed in the Ansys Maxwell FEM environment to derive the non-linear stiffness and damping of the asymmetric magnetic suspension. Experimental laboratory tests on three harvester prototypes are compared to numerical results of dynamic simulations in MATLAB/Simulink for the validation of the proposed model through error estimation. The fully-parametric validated model is used to perform sensitivity analyses on the device’s mechanical characteristics of natural frequency and magnet equilibrium position by varying the fixed and moving magnets dimensions. The set of magnets composing the magnetic spring is chosen complying with the application design constraints of size and resonance frequency tuning. Coil parameters of length and number of turns are optimized for maximum output power generation. The optimized device simulated performances are compared to other devices in the literature in terms of NPD, a significant index that evaluates power density under different excitation amplitudes. The optimized harvester presents the highest NPD value of 2.61, achieving an improvement of 52% with respect to the best harvester amongst the three tested prototypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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17 pages, 4624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Optimization of a Boost Interface for Magnetostrictive Energy Harvesting

by Carmine Stefano Clemente, Immacolato Iannone, Vincenzo Paolo Loschiavo and Daniele Davino

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1606; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031606 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

Magnetostrictive alloys are very promising for Vibration Energy Harvesting applications to supply power to Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, especially because of their intrinsic robustness. Typically, vibration energy sources are random in nature, usually providing exploitable voltages much lower than the electronic standards 1.6, 3.3 and 5 V. Therefore, a Power Electronic Interface (PEI) is needed to improve the conversion to DC output voltage from AC input over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes. Very few or no conversion techniques are available for magnetostrictive devices, although several have been presented over the years for other smart materials, such as piezoelectrics. For example, hybrid buck–boost converters for piezoelectrics use one or more external inductors with a high-frequency switching technique. However, because of the intrinsic nature of harvesters based on magnetostrictive materials, such energy conversion techniques are proved to be neither efficient nor applicable. An improved AC–DC boost converter seems very promising for our purpose instead. The key feature is represented by the direct exploitation of the active harvester coil as a storage element of the boost circuit, without using other passive inductors as in other switching methods. Experimental tests of such a converter, driven with a real-time operating Arduino controller to detect the polarity of the input voltage, are presented with the aim to assess the potentiality of the scheme with both sinusoidal and impulse-like inputs. Simulations have been performed with LTspice, and the performance and efficiency have been compared with other energy conversion techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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18 pages, 8762 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Investigation on Distributed Vibration Damping of Bridge Based on Energy Harvesting Technique and Finite Element Analysis

by Hailu Yang, Qun Chen, Huifang Liu, Haoran Chang, Shih-Hsien Yang, Linbing Wang and Pengfei Liu

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010382 - 28 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1652

Abstract

Based on the vibration control method and energy harvesting principle in the bridge field, this paper proposes a distributed vibration reduction and energy harvesting method for bridges. Firstly, the analytical solutions of the induced electromotive force, output power and magnetic damping generated by a coil in a magnetic field were deduced through an electromagnetic theory analysis. In addition, the structural vibration equation under the magnetic damping was deduced. Then, a new method of joint simulation and modeling analysis of vibration and energy output was proposed. Finally, the structural vibration reduction and energy output power were analyzed and calculated. The main research results are as follows: by calculating the instantaneous power of the energy collection of the designed circuit, the average instantaneous power collected by the design method is 1.093 × 10⁻⁹ W; the initial vibration signal of the target node is obtained through analysis, and the vibration signal of the node before and after applying the electromagnetic damping force is transformed. For the energy analysis, the energy of the acceleration curve before and after the node was calculated to be 3.1048 × 10⁸ and 3.1044 × 10⁸, respectively, and the reduction rate of the node vibration energy was 0.01% and 0.02%, respectively. Thus, the feasibility and vibration reduction effect of the designed bridge distributed vibration reduction and energy harvesting method is verified when the electromagnetic damping force is small. This method can provide new ideas for bridge structure vibration reduction and energy harvesting research and is of great significance to the infrastructure construction and utilization of renewable energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art in Energy Harvesting for IoT and WSN)

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