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19 pages, 3898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Grinding Conditions on Clinker Grinding Efficiency: Ball Size, Mill Rotation Speed, and Feed Rate

by Yahya Kaya, Veysel Kobya, Ali Mardani, Naz Mardani and Hatice Elif Beytekin

Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2356; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082356 - 31 Jul 2024

Viewed by 852

Abstract

The production of cement, an essential material in civil engineering, requires a substantial energy input, with a significant portion of this energy consumed during the grinding stage. This study addresses the gap in the literature concerning the collective impact of key parameters, including [...] Read more.

The production of cement, an essential material in civil engineering, requires a substantial energy input, with a significant portion of this energy consumed during the grinding stage. This study addresses the gap in the literature concerning the collective impact of key parameters, including ball size, feed rate, and mill speed, on grinding efficiency. Nine spherical balls, ranging from 15–65 mm, were utilized in six distinct distributions, alongside varying feed rates and mill speeds. ANOVA, Taguchi, and regression analyses were employed to explore their influence on grinding efficiency and cement properties. The findings revealed that ball size variation significantly affects grinding performance, with smaller diameter balls yielding higher efficiency due to increased abrasion and fine formation. Conversely, elevating mill speed generally diminishes grinding efficiency, particularly at speeds approaching 90% of the critical speed, impacting ball shoulder and foot angles. Moreover, increasing the feed rate affects the grinding performance differently based on ball distribution, with finer distributions experiencing adverse effects. Signal-to-noise ratios facilitated determining the optimal control factor levels to minimize energy consumption. Quadratic regression models exhibited strong predictive capabilities for energy consumption in grinding. Ultimately, the optimal grinding performance was achieved with Bond-type ball distribution No. 6, considering ball size, mill speed, and feed-rate interactions, albeit with considerations regarding grinding time and energy efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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17 pages, 6386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase-Change/Salt-Based Slow-Release Composite Material for Anti-Icing and Snow-Melting

by Chuanshan Wu, Dongxing Gao, Haonan Shangguan, Renshan Chen and Changlin Hou

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2177; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072177 - 15 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 694

Abstract

Currently, self-desiccating asphalt mixtures on roads mainly incorporate phase-change materials or salt-based slow-release agents individually for de-icing. However, pure phase-change material mixtures have limited anti-freezing efficiency and short heat-release duration, making them impractical for large-scale snow melting; meanwhile, salt-based slow-release agents suffer from [...] Read more.

Currently, self-desiccating asphalt mixtures on roads mainly incorporate phase-change materials or salt-based slow-release agents individually for de-icing. However, pure phase-change material mixtures have limited anti-freezing efficiency and short heat-release duration, making them impractical for large-scale snow melting; meanwhile, salt-based slow-release agents suffer from rapid deterioration in de-icing performance. To address these issues encountered, herein, we introduce the phase-change/salt-based slow-release composite materials via the integration of these two materials and investigate their pavement and de-icing performance with the asphalt mixture. For the pavement performance, the optimal asphalt–aggregate ratio for the anti-icing asphalt mixture was found to be 5.1% For anti-bonding and de-icing performance, the electrical conductivity tests, bonding pull-off tests, and interfacial contact melting experiments were conducted. The results indicate that the latent heat of the TH-ME5 (phase-change material) can delay the decrease in environmental temperature and inhibit salt release from T-SEN (salt-based slow-release material), thereby extending the lifespan of the anti-icing asphalt mixture. These results demonstrate that the synergistic effect between the two components of the composite material not only enhance the snow-melting and de-icing performance of the asphalt pavement but also prolong the snow-melting time of the pavement in a low-temperature environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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26 pages, 34709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comfort for Users of the Educational Center Applying Sustainable Design Strategies, Carabayllo-Peru-2023

by Nicole Cuya, Paul Estrada, Doris Esenarro, Violeta Vega, Jesica Vilchez Cairo and Diego C. Mancilla-Bravo

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2143; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072143 - 12 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1504

Abstract

The educational problems in the area, economic disparities, conflict situations, and deficiencies in educational infrastructure directly affect the quality and accessibility of education. Therefore, the present research aims to generate comfort for users of the educational center by applying sustainable design strategies in [...] Read more.

The educational problems in the area, economic disparities, conflict situations, and deficiencies in educational infrastructure directly affect the quality and accessibility of education. Therefore, the present research aims to generate comfort for users of the educational center by applying sustainable design strategies in Carabayllo, Peru. The study started with a literature review, an analysis of flora and fauna, passive design strategies, and climatic analysis applying sustainability strategies supported by digital tools (AutoCAD, Revit Collaborate, Climate Consultant, OpenStreetMap, JOSM, Rhinoceros, and Grasshopper). As a result, the design proposes an educational center that ensures year-round comfort through energy efficiency, the use of eco-friendly materials, and green roofs. Additionally, it includes the implementation of dry toilets, biofilters, and xerophytic vegetation for orchards, promoting food production and enhancing the treatment of nearby public spaces. In conclusion, this proposal enhances the quality of life for users by applying passive design strategies and sustainability principles, adopting clean energy sources, and efficiently managing waste, thereby contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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19 pages, 5456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cementless Binder Based on High-Calcium Fly Ash, Silica Fume, and the Complex Additive Ca(NO₃)₂ + MgCl₂: Phase Composition, Hydration, and Strength

by Yurii Barabanshchikov and Kseniia Usanova

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072121 - 10 Jul 2024

Viewed by 655

Abstract

This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the properties of a binder based on high-calcium fly ash and silica fume with a complex additive consisting of calcium nitrate and magnesium chloride. The strength characteristics, the characteristics of the hydration process, and the phase composition [...] Read more.

This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the properties of a binder based on high-calcium fly ash and silica fume with a complex additive consisting of calcium nitrate and magnesium chloride. The strength characteristics, the characteristics of the hydration process, and the phase composition of the hydration products of the binder were investigated. Silica fume was used to suppress the expansion of fly ash during hydration. A complex additive (CA) consisting of Ca(NO₃)₂ and MgCl₂ provided a higher strength of binder than each of these salts separately. When testing a mortar with sand, the CA additive ensured that the strength of the specimens was 43.5% higher than the strength of the mortar with the addition of Ca(NO₃)₂ and 7.5% higher than the strength of the mortar with the MgCl₂ additive. Calcium nitrate greatly accelerated the process of heat release in the first 60 min of binder hydration, and subsequently, conversely, slowed it down. The addition of MgCl₂ gave a significantly greater thermal effect than Ca(NO₃)₂. When the two salts acted together, even a small fraction of magnesium chloride (0.2 of CA) compensated for the retarding effect of calcium nitrate and provided heat release for the binder that was almost as good as that of MgCl₂. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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24 pages, 5358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Performance Analysis of a Novel Sterilizable Trombe Wall Based on the Combined Effect of Heat and UV Light

by Miaomiao Fan, Niansi Li and Bendong Yu

Buildings 2024, 14(5), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051210 - 24 Apr 2024

Viewed by 755

Abstract

A Trombe wall is a widely applied heating system that has a single function. An interesting thing is that both the solar heat and UV light received by a Trombe wall have an air sterilization effect. Here, the air sterilization and thermal performances [...] Read more.

A Trombe wall is a widely applied heating system that has a single function. An interesting thing is that both the solar heat and UV light received by a Trombe wall have an air sterilization effect. Here, the air sterilization and thermal performances of a Trombe wall in different cities were investigated based on an established heat and mass transfer model. The main results were as follows: (1) UV dose accumulation and high temperature were the most important factors that affect the UV and thermal sterilization performance, respectively. The Trombe wall had the thermal characteristics of high accumulation of UV doses in the morning and afternoon and a high temperature level at noon, which was a good match with the UV and thermal sterilization process. (2) A typical sterilization process in a Trombe wall was divided into three areas: the UV inactivation area, UV and thermal inactivation area and UV inactivation area. (3) The weather conditions played an important role in the sterilization performance. UV sterilization was dominant in cloudy weather, and thermal sterilization was dominant in sunny weather. (4) In Nanjing, Shanghai, Xining and Guangzhou, the average daily clean air volumes in heating months were 39.4, 33.5, 32.2 and 39.8 m³/m², respectively. (5) When the wall height increased from 1.5 m to 3.5 m, the average daily clean air volume in heating months increased from 31.7 to 43.6 m³/m². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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25 pages, 16473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Collaborative Optimized Design of Glazing Parameters and PCM Utilization for Energy-Efficient Glass Curtain Wall Buildings

by Xinrui Zheng, Yan Liang, Haibin Yang, Yingyan Zeng and Hongzhi Cui

Buildings 2024, 14(1), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010256 - 17 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1682

Abstract

Glass curtain walls (GCWs) have become prevalent in office buildings, owing to their lightweight and modular characteristics. However, their lower thermal resistance, compared to opaque walls, results in increased energy consumption. Incorporating phase-change materials (PCMs) provides a viable solution through which to address [...] Read more.

Glass curtain walls (GCWs) have become prevalent in office buildings, owing to their lightweight and modular characteristics. However, their lower thermal resistance, compared to opaque walls, results in increased energy consumption. Incorporating phase-change materials (PCMs) provides a viable solution through which to address the susceptibility of GCWs to external conditions, thus enhancing thermal performance and mitigating energy concerns. This study delves into the influences of the glazing solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), the glazing heat transfer coefficient (U-value), and PCM thickness on the energy performance of buildings. Using Design Builder (DB) software version 6.1.0.006, a multi-story office building was simulated in different climatic zones in China, covering the climatic characteristics of severe cold, cold, hot summer and warm winter, cold summer and winter, and mild regions. The simulation results quantitatively elucidated the effects of the glazing parameters and the number of PCMs on thermal regulation and energy consumption. A sensitivity analysis identified the glazing SHGC as the most influential factor in energy consumption. Additionally, by employing Response Surface Methodology (RSM), the researchers aimed to achieve a balance between minimal building energy consumption and economic cost, ultimately determining an optimal design solution. The results demonstrated significant energy savings, ranging from 20.16% to 81.18%, accompanied by economic savings, ranging from 15.78% to 79.54%, across distinct climate zones in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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15 pages, 1483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studying the Compressed Mechanical Characteristics of a Novel Carbon-Free Plaster Using ANSYS Software

by Mohammed Aqeel Albadrani and Ahmed D. Almutairi

Buildings 2023, 13(11), 2871; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112871 - 16 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1392

Abstract

Eco-friendly plasters offer several advantages, including sustainability, nontoxicity, and low cost. These plasters are made with sustainable materials, such as natural fibers and starches. These materials can have different mechanical properties compared to traditional plasters, which are made with gypsum and cement. Due [...] Read more.

Eco-friendly plasters offer several advantages, including sustainability, nontoxicity, and low cost. These plasters are made with sustainable materials, such as natural fibers and starches. These materials can have different mechanical properties compared to traditional plasters, which are made with gypsum and cement. Due to the increased attention being paid to environmental issues, efforts are still being made to switch out the conventional plaster of gypsum and cement for an eco-friendlier alternative to minimize toxicity, increase effectiveness, and lower cost. In this study, the effect of novel plaster behavior under pressure on mechanical properties was investigated. The plaster investigated was an eco-friendly carbon-free BSCO plaster. A range of experimental techniques were used, such as compression testing for confirmation using ANSYS 2023 R1 software, which set ergonomic and user-friendly standards as a minimum requirement, with the overarching goal of creating stronger, lighter, and more reasonably priced structures. The results showed that eco-friendly Bilateral Specialized Company (BSCO) plasters could have comparable mechanical properties to traditional plasters. Additionally, it is suggested that eco-friendly and carbon-free plasters can be a viable alternative to traditional plasters in a variety of applications. Researchers and civil engineers can both gain from this scientific paper’s potential to replace conventional stucco with an ecologically friendly alternative that has more effective mechanical qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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14 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Phase Change Materials on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Concrete Made with Recycled Aggregate

by Zhiyou Jia, Sandra Cunha, José Aguiar and Pengfei Guo

Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2601; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102601 - 15 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1350

Abstract

With the world’s population increasing, the issue of energy consumption has become increasingly prominent, particularly during the building operation phase, where substantial energy is required for heating and cooling. Presently, the energy necessary for buildings is sourced mainly from the combustion of fossil [...] Read more.

With the world’s population increasing, the issue of energy consumption has become increasingly prominent, particularly during the building operation phase, where substantial energy is required for heating and cooling. Presently, the energy necessary for buildings is sourced mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, leading to not only energy scarcity but also severe environmental pollution and ecological damage. Furthermore, rapid urbanization has generated a lot of construction and demolition waste. To address these challenges, one promising approach is the incorporation of phase-change materials in recycled aggregate from construction and demolition waste to replace the raw materials of concrete. In this study, the phase-change material suitable for the thermal comfort requirements of buildings was selected and combined with recycled aggregate to replace the natural aggregate in concrete. All the materials used were characterized and three compositions were prepared. From the results, the workability of concrete increased with the phase-change materials added. Regarding water absorption performance, the incorporation of functionalized recycled aggregate presented a small water absorption performance. However, the mechanical performance decreased with the phase-change materials used. This work provides data for the application of phase-change materials in green concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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16 pages, 7014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Thermal Performance of Fly Ash Foam Concrete Containing Phase Change Materials (PCMs)

by Purev-Erdene Bat-Erdene, Sanjay Pareek, Eddie Koenders, Christoph Mankel, Max Löher and Peng Xiao

Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2481; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102481 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1068

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the characteristics of fly ash foam concrete containing two varying temperature ranges of microencapsulated phase change materials (PCMs): PCM28D (26–30 °C) and PCM43D (41–45 °C). In total, five different fly ash foam concrete samples were [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to assess the characteristics of fly ash foam concrete containing two varying temperature ranges of microencapsulated phase change materials (PCMs): PCM28D (26–30 °C) and PCM43D (41–45 °C). In total, five different fly ash foam concrete samples were prepared, and the unit weight of cement was substituted with varying percentages of PCM (0%, 10% and 30%). As a result, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed that PCM43D-30% exhibited a heat storage capacity of 45.32 °C and 37.89 °C with 42.87 J/g and 41.01 J/g in its liquid and solid phases, respectively. Furthermore, thermocycle analysis indicated that PCM43D-30% maintained the temperature within the stated phase change range for a duration of 7 h. In conclusion, the incorporation of PCMs (28D and 43D) in fly ash foam concrete shows promise in reducing indoor temperature fluctuations, thereby improving energy efficiency. The improved thermal performance can be suitable for various applications such as inner and outside walls of energy-efficient construction designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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23 pages, 12187 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embodied Energy in the Production of Guar and Xanthan Biopolymers and Their Cross-Linking Effect in Enhancing the Geotechnical Properties of Cohesive Soil

by M. Ashok Kumar, Arif Ali Baig Moghal, Kopparthi Venkata Vydehi and Abdullah Almajed

Buildings 2023, 13(9), 2304; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092304 - 10 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

Traditional soil stabilization techniques, such as cement and lime, are known for their menacing effect on the environment through heavy carbon emissions. Sustainable soil stabilization methods are grabbing attention, and the utilization of biopolymers is surely one among them. Recent studies proved the [...] Read more.

Traditional soil stabilization techniques, such as cement and lime, are known for their menacing effect on the environment through heavy carbon emissions. Sustainable soil stabilization methods are grabbing attention, and the utilization of biopolymers is surely one among them. Recent studies proved the efficiency of biopolymers in enhancing the geotechnical properties to meet the requirements of the construction industry. The suitability of biopolymer application in different soils is still unexplored, and the carbon footprint analysis (CFA) of biopolymers is crucial in promoting the biopolymers as a promising sustainable soil stabilization method. This study attempts to investigate the out-turn of cross-linked biopolymer on soils exhibiting different plasticity characteristics (Medium & High compressibility) and to determine the Embodied carbon factor (ECF) for the selected biopolymers. Guar (G) and Xanthan (X) biopolymers were cross-linked at different proportions to enhance the geotechnical properties of soils. Atterberg’s limits, Compaction characteristics, and Unconfined Compressive Strength were chosen as performance indicators, and their values were analyzed at different combinations of biopolymers before and after cross-linking. The test results have shown that Atterberg’s limits of the soils increased with the addition of biopolymers, and it is attributed to the formation of hydrogels in the soil matrix. Compaction test results reveal that the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of biopolymer-modified soil increased, and Maximum Dry Density (MDD) reduced due to the resistance offered by hydrogel against compaction effort. Soils amended with biopolymers and cured for 14, 28, and 60 days have shown an appreciable improvement in Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) results. Microlevel analysis was carried out using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) and FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) to formulate the mechanism responsible for the alteration in targeted performance indicators due to the cross-linking of biopolymers in the soil. The embodied energy in the production of both Guar and Xanthan biopolymers was calculated, and the obtained ECF values were 0.087 and 1.67, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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23 pages, 6636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shrinkage and Consolidation Characteristics of Chitosan-Amended Soft Soil—A Sustainable Alternate Landfill Liner Material

by Romana Mariyam Rasheed, Arif Ali Baig Moghal, Sai Sampreeth Reddy Jannepally, Ateekh Ur Rehman and Bhaskar C. S. Chittoori

Buildings 2023, 13(9), 2230; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092230 - 31 Aug 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1894

Abstract

Kuttanad is a region that lies in the southwest part of Kerala, India, and possesses soft soil, which imposes constraints on many civil engineering applications owing to low shear strength and high compressibility. Chemical stabilizers such as cement and lime have been extensively [...] Read more.

Kuttanad is a region that lies in the southwest part of Kerala, India, and possesses soft soil, which imposes constraints on many civil engineering applications owing to low shear strength and high compressibility. Chemical stabilizers such as cement and lime have been extensively utilized in the past to address compressibility issues. However, future civilizations will be extremely dependent on the development of sustainable materials and practices such as the use of bio-enzymes, calcite precipitation methods, and biological materials as a result of escalating environmental concerns due to carbon emissions of conventional stabilizers. One such alternative is the utilization of biopolymers. The current study investigates the effect of chitosan (biopolymer extracted from shrimp shells) in improving the consolidation and shrinkage characteristics of these soft soils. The dosages adopted are 0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 4%. One-dimensional fixed ring consolidation tests indicate that consolidation characteristics are improved upon the addition of chitosan up to an optimum dosage of 2%. The coefficient of consolidation increases up to seven times that of untreated soil, indicating the acceleration of the consolidation process by incorporating chitosan. The shrinkage potential is reduced by 11% after amendment with 4% chitosan and all the treated samples exhibit zero signs of curling. Based on the findings from consolidation and shrinkage data, carbon emission assessments are carried out for a typical landfill liner amended with an optimum dosage of chitosan. In comparison to conventional stabilizers like cement and lime, the results indicate that chitosan minimized carbon emissions by 7.325 times and 8.754 times, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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Review

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22 pages, 3836 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reviewing the Potential of Phase Change Materials in Concrete Pavements for Anti-Freezing Capabilities and Urban Heat Island Mitigation

by Iman Asadi, Stefan Jacobsen, Mohammad Hajmohammadian Baghban, Mehdi Maghfouri and Mohammad Hashemi

Buildings 2023, 13(12), 3072; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13123072 - 9 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2278

Abstract

This study provides an overview of how phase change materials (PCMs) can improve the resistance of concrete pavement to freeze–thaw cycles and mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect. The investigation covers different types of PCMs and methods for integrating them into concrete [...] Read more.

This study provides an overview of how phase change materials (PCMs) can improve the resistance of concrete pavement to freeze–thaw cycles and mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect. The investigation covers different types of PCMs and methods for integrating them into concrete pavement, as well as the mechanical properties and compressive strength of concrete pavement when employing various PCMs. Prior studies have identified porous aggregates, microencapsulation, and pipelines containing liquid PCM as common approaches for PCM integration. Researchers have observed that the utilization of PCMs in concrete pavement yields favorable thermal properties, suggesting the potential for anti-freezing and UHI mitigation applications. However, the choice of PCM materials should be informed by local climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Construction and Building Materials)

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