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Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pharmacology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 60721

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Timo T Myöhänen

E-Mail
Collection Editor
Helsingin Yliopisto, Helsinki, Finland
Interests: Parkinson´s disease; Neurodegenerative Diseases; Pharmacology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, are an enormous health problem in Western countries with aged populations and an increasing problem in former third world countries, such as China, where life expectancy has started to increase. Current drug therapies are only symptomatic; they cannot block or delay the disease progression that gradually leads to more severe symptoms and eventually to death. Therefore, there is an urgent need for novel therapies that have disease-modifying properties. However, several recent failures in clinical trials attempting to develop novel therapies for neurodegenerative diseases suggest that better models, targets and compounds are needed.

The aim of this Special Issue “Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases” is to stimulate discussion about the current and promising drug targets for neurodegenerative diseases, different pharmacological approaches and the benefits and limitations of the models of neurodegenerative diseases. This Special Issue will accept articles from molecular pharmacology to clinical pharmacology that focus on novel approaches to develop pharmacological therapies for neurodegenerative diseases.

Dr. Timo T Myöhänen
Collection Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. There is an Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal. For details about the APC please see here. Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Parkinson’s disease
  • Alzheimer’s disease
  • Huntington’s disease
  • ALS
  • protein aggregation
  • protein processing failures
  • autophagy
  • ER stress
  • neuroinflammation

Published Papers (18 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

12 pages, 2126 KiB  
Article
Prolonged Differentiation of Neuron-Astrocyte Co-Cultures Results in Emergence of Dopaminergic Neurons
by Victoria C. de Leeuw, Conny T. M. van Oostrom, Edwin P. Zwart, Harm J. Heusinkveld and Ellen V. S. Hessel
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(4), 3608; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043608 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1714
Abstract
Dopamine is present in a subgroup of neurons that are vital for normal brain functioning. Disruption of the dopaminergic system, e.g., by chemical compounds, contributes to the development of Parkinson’s disease and potentially some neurodevelopmental disorders. Current test guidelines for chemical safety assessment [...] Read more.
Dopamine is present in a subgroup of neurons that are vital for normal brain functioning. Disruption of the dopaminergic system, e.g., by chemical compounds, contributes to the development of Parkinson’s disease and potentially some neurodevelopmental disorders. Current test guidelines for chemical safety assessment do not include specific endpoints for dopamine disruption. Therefore, there is a need for the human-relevant assessment of (developmental) neurotoxicity related to dopamine disruption. The aim of this study was to determine the biological domain related to dopaminergic neurons of a human stem cell-based in vitro test, the human neural progenitor test (hNPT). Neural progenitor cells were differentiated in a neuron-astrocyte co-culture for 70 days, and dopamine-related gene and protein expression was investigated. Expression of genes specific for dopaminergic differentiation and functioning, such as LMX1B, NURR1, TH, SLC6A3, and KCNJ6, were increasing by day 14. From day 42, a network of neurons expressing the catecholamine marker TH and the dopaminergic markers VMAT2 and DAT was present. These results confirm stable gene and protein expression of dopaminergic markers in hNPT. Further characterization and chemical testing are needed to investigate if the model might be relevant in a testing strategy to test the neurotoxicity of the dopaminergic system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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14 pages, 4107 KiB  
Article
Oleracone F Alleviates Cognitive Impairment and Neuropathology in APPswe/PSEN1dE9 Mice by Reducing the Expression of Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule and Leukocyte Adhesion to Brain Vascular Endothelial Cells
by Young-Sun Kwon, Jin-Sung Ko, Se-Young Oh, Young Taek Han and Sangmee Ahn Jo
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(3), 2056; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032056 - 20 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1557
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and the blood–brain barrier dysfunction has been suggested as a key pathological feature of the disease. Our research group successfully established a synthetic protocol for oleracones, a novel series of flavonoids isolated from the [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and the blood–brain barrier dysfunction has been suggested as a key pathological feature of the disease. Our research group successfully established a synthetic protocol for oleracones, a novel series of flavonoids isolated from the plant extract of Portulaca oleracea L. (PO). PO extract was reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, enhancing cognitive function. Thus, we investigated the effects and mechanism of oleracones on cognition using AD model transgenic mice (Tg; APPswe/PSEN1dE9). Oleracone F treatment significantly improved memory dysfunction in Tg mice. Oleracone F decreased the number, burden, and immunoreactivity of amyloid plaques and amyloid precursor protein (APP) protein levels in the brains of Tg mice compared to wild-type mice. Oleracone F also alleviated inflammation observed in Tg mice brains. In vitro studies in human microvascular endothelial cells (HBMVECs) demonstrated that oleracones D, E, and F blocked the elevations in VCAM-1 protein induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), hindering leukocyte adhesion to HBMVECs. Taken together, our results suggest that oleracones ameliorated cognitive impairment by blocking TNF-α-induced increases in VCAM-1, thereby reducing leukocyte infiltration to the brain and modulating brain inflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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19 pages, 7539 KiB  
Article
Discovery of Mitophagy Inhibitors with Therapeutic Potential in Different Familial Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Mutations
by Ines Maestro, Laura R. de la Ballina, Gracia Porras, Silvia Corrochano, Eva De Lago, Anne Simonsen, Patricia Boya and Ana Martinez
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(20), 12676; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232012676 - 21 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2033
Abstract
Mitophagy is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It promotes the turnover of mitochondria and prevents the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, which can lead to cellular degeneration. Mitophagy is known to be altered in several pathological conditions, especially in neurodegenerative diseases such [...] Read more.
Mitophagy is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It promotes the turnover of mitochondria and prevents the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, which can lead to cellular degeneration. Mitophagy is known to be altered in several pathological conditions, especially in neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We recently demonstrated an increase in autophagy flux in lymphoblasts from ALS patients bearing a mutation in SOD1. Thus, the identification of mitophagy inhibitors may be a therapeutic option to recover mitochondrial homeostasis. Here, using a phenotypic mitophagy assay, we identified a new mitophagy inhibitor, the small molecule named IGS2.7 from the MBC library. Interestingly, the treatment of different cellular and in vivo models of ALS with mutations on SOD1 and TARDBP with this inhibitor restores autophagy to control levels. These results point mitophagy inhibitors, especially IGS2.7, to a new therapeutic approach for familial ALS patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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24 pages, 6700 KiB  
Article
Astrocytes Exhibit a Protective Role in Neuronal Firing Patterns under Chemically Induced Seizures in Neuron–Astrocyte Co-Cultures
by Annika Ahtiainen, Barbara Genocchi, Jarno M. A. Tanskanen, Michael T. Barros, Jari A. K. Hyttinen and Kerstin Lenk
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(23), 12770; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312770 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3985
Abstract
Astrocytes and neurons respond to each other by releasing transmitters, such as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, that modulate the synaptic transmission and electrochemical behavior of both cell types. Astrocytes also maintain neuronal homeostasis by clearing neurotransmitters from the extracellular space. These astrocytic [...] Read more.
Astrocytes and neurons respond to each other by releasing transmitters, such as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, that modulate the synaptic transmission and electrochemical behavior of both cell types. Astrocytes also maintain neuronal homeostasis by clearing neurotransmitters from the extracellular space. These astrocytic actions are altered in diseases involving malfunction of neurons, e.g., in epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease. Convulsant drugs such as 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) and gabazine are commonly used to study epilepsy in vitro. In this study, we aim to assess the modulatory roles of astrocytes during epileptic-like conditions and in compensating drug-elicited hyperactivity. We plated rat cortical neurons and astrocytes with different ratios on microelectrode arrays, induced seizures with 4-AP and gabazine, and recorded the evoked neuronal activity. Our results indicated that astrocytes effectively counteracted the effect of 4-AP during stimulation. Gabazine, instead, induced neuronal hyperactivity and synchronicity in all cultures. Furthermore, our results showed that the response time to the drugs increased with an increasing number of astrocytes in the co-cultures. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first that shows the critical modulatory role of astrocytes in 4-AP and gabazine-induced discharges and highlights the importance of considering different proportions of cells in the cultures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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16 pages, 3326 KiB  
Article
Cyclopentanone Derivative Attenuates Memory Impairment by Inhibiting Amyloid Plaques Formation in the 5xFAD Mice
by Rahim Ullah, Gowhar Ali, Ajmal Khan, Sajjad Ahmad and Ahmed Al-Harrasi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(17), 9559; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179559 - 3 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2544
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder. This study was designed to investigate the effects of cyclopentanone derivative i.e., 2-(hydroxyl-(3-nitrophenyl)methyl)cyclopentanone (3NCP) on behavior, amyloid β (Aβ) plaque deposition, and βAPP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1) expression in the 5xFAD mouse brain. In this study, [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder. This study was designed to investigate the effects of cyclopentanone derivative i.e., 2-(hydroxyl-(3-nitrophenyl)methyl)cyclopentanone (3NCP) on behavior, amyloid β (Aβ) plaque deposition, and βAPP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1) expression in the 5xFAD mouse brain. In this study, computational studies were conducted to predict the binding mode of the 3NCP with target sites of the β-secretase. In vivo studies were performed on the 5xFAD mice model of AD using different behavioral test models like light/dark box, elevated plus maze (EPM), and the Barnes maze tests for the assessment of anxiety, spatial learning and memory. The thioflavin-S staining, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and RT-PCR studies were carried out to find the effect of the 3NCP on the β-amyloid plaques formation and BACE-1 expression. The results of the computational studies showed that the 3NCP has excellent binding affinities for beta-secretase. The light/dark box study depicted that the 3NCP does not cause anxiety. The 3NCP treatment effects in the EPM and Barnes maze tests showed a significant effect on learning and memory. Furthermore, the results of the thioflavin staining and IHC revealed that the 3NCP significantly reduced the formation of the beta-amyloid plaques in brain tissues. Moreover, the RT-PCR study showed that 3NCP significantly reduced the BACE-1 expression in the brain. Conclusively, the results of the current study demonstrate that the 3NCP may be a potential candidate for AD treatment in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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16 pages, 3606 KiB  
Article
Effect of Chronic Administration of 5-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-Hexyl-2,4 -Dihydro-3H-1,2,4-Triazole-3-Thione (TP-315)—A New Anticonvulsant Drug Candidate—On Living Organisms
by Anna Makuch-Kocka, Marta Andres-Mach, Mirosław Zagaja, Anna Śmiech, Magdalena Pizoń, Jolanta Flieger, Judyta Cielecka-Piontek and Tomasz Plech
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3358; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073358 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2064
Abstract
About 70 million people suffer from epilepsy—a chronic neurodegenerative disease. In most cases, the cause of the disease is unknown, but epilepsy can also develop as the result of a stroke, trauma to the brain, or the use of psychotropic substances. The treatment [...] Read more.
About 70 million people suffer from epilepsy—a chronic neurodegenerative disease. In most cases, the cause of the disease is unknown, but epilepsy can also develop as the result of a stroke, trauma to the brain, or the use of psychotropic substances. The treatment of epilepsy is mainly based on the administration of anticonvulsants, which the patient must most often use throughout their life. Despite significant progress in research on antiepileptic drugs, about 30% of patients still have drug-resistant epilepsy, which is insensitive to pharmacotherapy used so far. In our recent studies, we have shown that 4-alkyl-5-aryl-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiones act on the voltage-gated sodium channels and exhibit anticonvulsant activity in an MES (maximal electroshock-induced seizure) and 6Hz test in mice. Previous studies have shown their beneficial toxic and pharmacological profile, but their effect on a living organism during chronic use is still unknown. In the presented study, on the basis of the previously conducted tests and the PAMPA (parallel artificial membrane permeability assay) BBB (blood–brain barrier) test, we selected one 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione derivative—TP-315—for further studies aimed at assessing the impact of its chronic use on a living organism. After long-term administration of TP-315 to Albino Swiss mice, its effect on the functional parameters of internal organs was assessed by performing biochemical, morphological, and histopathological examinations. It was also determined whether the tested compound inhibits selected isoforms of the CYP450 enzyme system. On the basis of the conducted tests, it was found that TP-315 does not show nephrotoxic nor hepatotoxic effects and does not cause changes in hematological parameters. In vitro tests showed that TP-315 did not inhibit CYP2B6, CYP2D6, CYP3A4, or CYP3A5 enzymes at the concentration found in the serum of mice subjected to long-term exposure to this compound. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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16 pages, 1676 KiB  
Article
Prolyl Oligopeptidase Regulates Dopamine Transporter Oligomerization and Phosphorylation in a PKC- and ERK-Independent Manner
by Ulrika H. Julku, Maria Jäntti, Reinis Svarcbahs and Timo T. Myöhänen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1777; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041777 - 10 Feb 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2732
Abstract
Prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP) is a serine protease that binds to alpha-synuclein (aSyn) and induces its aggregation. PREP inhibitors have been shown to have beneficial effects in Parkinson’s disease models by enhancing the clearance of aSyn aggregates and modulating striatal dopamine. Additionally, we have [...] Read more.
Prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP) is a serine protease that binds to alpha-synuclein (aSyn) and induces its aggregation. PREP inhibitors have been shown to have beneficial effects in Parkinson’s disease models by enhancing the clearance of aSyn aggregates and modulating striatal dopamine. Additionally, we have shown that PREP regulates phosphorylation and internalization of dopamine transporter (DAT) in mice. In this study, we clarified the mechanism behind this by using HEK-293 and PREP knock-out HEK-293 cells with DAT transfection. We tested the effects of PREP, PREP inhibition, and alpha-synuclein on PREP-related DAT regulation by using Western blot analysis and a dopamine uptake assay, and characterized the impact of PREP on protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) by using PKC assay and Western blot, respectively, as these kinases regulate DAT phosphorylation. Our results confirmed our previous findings that a lack of PREP can increase phosphorylation and internalization of DAT and decrease uptake of dopamine. PREP inhibition had a variable impact on phosphorylation of ERK dependent on the metabolic state of cells, but did not have an effect on phosphorylation or function of DAT. PREP modifications did not affect PKC activity either. Additionally, a lack of PREP elevated a DAT oligomerization that is associated with intracellular trafficking of DAT. Our results suggest that PREP-mediated phosphorylation, oligomerization, and internalization of DAT is not dependent on PKC or ERK. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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20 pages, 1555 KiB  
Article
Impairment of Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity at Schaffer Collateral-CA1 Synapses in Adult APP/PS1 Mice Depends on Proximity of Aβ Plaques
by Machhindra Garad, Elke Edelmann and Volkmar Leßmann
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1378; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22031378 - 30 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3406
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifaceted neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and irreversible cognitive decline, with no disease-modifying therapy until today. Spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is a Hebbian form of synaptic plasticity, and a strong candidate to underlie learning and memory at the [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifaceted neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and irreversible cognitive decline, with no disease-modifying therapy until today. Spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is a Hebbian form of synaptic plasticity, and a strong candidate to underlie learning and memory at the single neuron level. Although several studies reported impaired long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus in AD mouse models, the impact of amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology on STDP in the hippocampus is not known. Using whole cell patch clamp recordings in CA1 pyramidal neurons of acute transversal hippocampal slices, we investigated timing-dependent (t-) LTP induced by STDP paradigms at Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapses in slices of 6-month-old adult APP/PS1 AD model mice. Our results show that t-LTP can be induced even in fully developed adult mice with different and even low repeat STDP paradigms. Further, adult APP/PS1 mice displayed intact t-LTP induced by 1 presynaptic EPSP paired with 4 postsynaptic APs (6× 1:4) or 1 presynaptic EPSP paired with 1 postsynaptic AP (100× 1:1) STDP paradigms when the position of Aβ plaques relative to recorded CA1 neurons in the slice were not considered. However, when Aβ plaques were live stained with the fluorescent dye methoxy-X04, we observed that in CA1 neurons with their somata <200 µm away from the border of the nearest Aβ plaque, t-LTP induced by 6× 1:4 stimulation was significantly impaired, while t-LTP was unaltered in CA1 neurons >200 µm away from plaques. Treatment of APP/PS1 mice with the anti-inflammatory drug fingolimod that we previously showed to alleviate synaptic deficits in this AD mouse model did not rescue the impaired t-LTP. Our data reveal that overexpression of APP and PS1 mutations in AD model mice disrupts t-LTP in an Aβ plaque distance-dependent manner, but cannot be improved by fingolimod (FTY720) that has been shown to rescue conventional LTP in CA1 of APP/PS1 mice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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21 pages, 6100 KiB  
Article
TLR7/8 in the Pathogenesis of Parkinson’s Disease
by Michela Campolo, Alessia Filippone, Carmelo Biondo, Giuseppe Mancuso, Giovanna Casili, Marika Lanza, Salvatore Cuzzocrea, Emanuela Esposito and Irene Paterniti
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(24), 9384; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21249384 - 9 Dec 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2988
Abstract
Neuroinflammation and autoimmune mechanisms have a key part in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Therefore, we evaluated the role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as a link between inflammation and autoimmunity in PD. An in vivo model of PD was performed by administration [...] Read more.
Neuroinflammation and autoimmune mechanisms have a key part in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Therefore, we evaluated the role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as a link between inflammation and autoimmunity in PD. An in vivo model of PD was performed by administration of 1-metil 4-fenil 1,2,3,6-tetraidro-piridina (MPTP) at the dose of 20 mg/kg every 2 h for a total administration of 80/kg, both in single Knock Out (KO) mice for TLR7, TLR 8, and TLR9 and in double KO mice for TLR 7/8-/-. All animals were compared with WT animals used as a control group. All animals were sacrificed after 7 days form the first administration of MPTP. The genetic absence of TLR 7 and 8 modified the PD pathway, increasing the immunoreactivity for TH and DAT compared to PD groups and decreasing microglia and astrocytes activation. Moreover, the deletion of TLR7 and TLR8 significantly reduced T-cell infiltration in the substantia nigra and lymph nodes, suggesting a reduction of T-cell activation. Therefore, our result highlights a possibility that an immunotherapy approach, by using a dual antagonist of TLR 7 and 8, could be considered as a possible target to develop new therapies for Parkinson diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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20 pages, 7691 KiB  
Article
The Antipsychotic D2AAK1 as a Memory Enhancer for Treatment of Mental and Neurodegenerative Diseases
by Oliwia Koszła, Przemysław Sołek, Sylwia Woźniak, Ewa Kędzierska, Tomasz M. Wróbel, Magda Kondej, Aneta Archała, Piotr Stępnicki, Grażyna Biała, Dariusz Matosiuk and Agnieszka A. Kaczor
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(22), 8849; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21228849 - 23 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2729
Abstract
The treatment of memory impairments associated with the central nervous system diseases remains an unmet medical need with social and economic implications. Here we show, that a multi-target ligand of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors with antipsychotic activity in vivo (D2AAK1) stimulates neuron growth [...] Read more.
The treatment of memory impairments associated with the central nervous system diseases remains an unmet medical need with social and economic implications. Here we show, that a multi-target ligand of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors with antipsychotic activity in vivo (D2AAK1) stimulates neuron growth and survival and promotes neuron integrity. We focused on the multilevel evaluation of the D2AAK1-related effects on neurons in terms of behavioral, cellular, molecular, and biochemical features in vivo and in vitro, such as memory-related responses, locomotor activity, tissue sections analysis, metabolic activity, proliferation level, neurons morphology, and proteins level involved in intracellular signaling pathways. In silico studies indicate that activation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I (CaMKI) may underline some of the observed activities of the compound. Furthermore, the compound increases hippocampal neuron proliferation via the activation of neurotrophic factors and cooperating signals responsible for cell growth and proliferation. D2AAK1 improves memory and learning processes in mice after both acute and chronic administration. D2AAK1 also causes an increase in the number of hippocampal pyramidal neurons after chronic administration. Because of its neuroprotective properties and pro-cognitive activity in behavioral studies D2AAK1 has the potential for the treatment of memory disturbances in neurodegenerative and mental diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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Review

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27 pages, 1947 KiB  
Review
Migraine Pharmacological Treatment and Cognitive Impairment: Risks and Benefits
by Mirella Russo, Matteo A. De Rosa, Dario Calisi, Stefano Consoli, Giacomo Evangelista, Fedele Dono, Matteo Santilli, Alberto Granzotto, Marco Onofrj and Stefano L. Sensi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(19), 11418; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231911418 - 27 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4332
Abstract
Migraine is a common neurological disorder impairing the quality of life of patients. The condition requires, as an acute or prophylactic line of intervention, the frequent use of drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). The long-term impact of these medications on [...] Read more.
Migraine is a common neurological disorder impairing the quality of life of patients. The condition requires, as an acute or prophylactic line of intervention, the frequent use of drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). The long-term impact of these medications on cognition and neurodegeneration has never been consistently assessed. The paper reviews pharmacological migraine treatments and discusses their biological and clinical effects on the CNS. The different anti-migraine drugs show distinct profiles concerning neurodegeneration and the risk of cognitive deficits. These features should be carefully evaluated when prescribing a pharmacological treatment as many migraineurs are of scholar or working age and their performances may be affected by drug misuse. Thus, a reconsideration of therapy guidelines is warranted. Furthermore, since conflicting results have emerged in the relationship between migraine and dementia, future studies must consider present and past pharmacological regimens as potential confounding factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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22 pages, 836 KiB  
Review
Sovateltide Mediated Endothelin B Receptors Agonism and Curbing Neurological Disorders
by Amaresh K. Ranjan and Anil Gulati
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(6), 3146; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23063146 - 15 Mar 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3783
Abstract
Neurological/neurovascular disorders constitute the leading cause of disability and the second leading cause of death globally. Major neurological/neurovascular disorders or diseases include cerebral stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injury, neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and others. Their pathophysiology is considered highly complex and is the [...] Read more.
Neurological/neurovascular disorders constitute the leading cause of disability and the second leading cause of death globally. Major neurological/neurovascular disorders or diseases include cerebral stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injury, neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and others. Their pathophysiology is considered highly complex and is the main obstacle in developing any drugs for these diseases. In this review, we have described the endothelin system, its involvement in neurovascular disorders, the importance of endothelin B receptors (ETBRs) as a novel potential drug target, and its agonism by IRL-1620 (INN—sovateltide), which we are developing as a drug candidate for treating the above-mentioned neurological disorders/diseases. In addition, we have highlighted the results of our preclinical and clinical studies related to these diseases. The phase I safety and tolerability study of sovateltide has shown it as a safe and tolerable compound at therapeutic dosages. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical phase II studies have demonstrated the efficacy of sovateltide in treating acute ischemic stroke. It is under development as a first-in-class drug. In addition, efficacy studies in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), acute spinal cord injury, and neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) are ongoing. Successful completion of these studies will validate that ETBRs signaling can be an important target in developing drugs to treat neurological/neurovascular diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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18 pages, 1353 KiB  
Review
Aducanumab and Its Effects on Tau Pathology: Is This the Turning Point of Amyloid Hypothesis?
by Serena Silvestro, Andrea Valeri and Emanuela Mazzon
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(4), 2011; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23042011 - 11 Feb 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4696
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting millions of people around the world. The two main pathological mechanisms underlying the disease are beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of Tau proteins in the brain. Their reduction has been associated with [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting millions of people around the world. The two main pathological mechanisms underlying the disease are beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of Tau proteins in the brain. Their reduction has been associated with slowing of cognitive decline and disease progression. Several antibodies aimed to target Aβ or Tau in order to represent hope for millions of patients, but only a small number managed to be selected to participate in clinical trials. Aducanumab is a monoclonal antibody recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which, targeting (Aβ) oligomers and fibrils, was able to reduce Aβ accumulation and slow the progression of cognitive impairment. It was also claimed to have an effect on the second hallmark of AD, decreasing the level of phospho-Tau evaluated in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and by positron emission tomography (PET). This evidence may represent a turning point in the development of AD-efficient drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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30 pages, 2182 KiB  
Review
Gastrointestinal Dopamine in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review
by Magdalena Kurnik-Łucka, Paweł Pasieka, Patrycja Łączak, Marcin Wojnarski, Michał Jurczyk and Krzysztof Gil
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(23), 12932; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312932 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4457
Abstract
Background: an increased prevalence of gastro-duodenal ulceration was described almost sixty years ago as prodromal to idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, while duodenal ulcers have been rarely diagnosed in patients with schizophrenia. The cytoprotective role of dopamine in animal models of gastrointestinal ulcerations has also [...] Read more.
Background: an increased prevalence of gastro-duodenal ulceration was described almost sixty years ago as prodromal to idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, while duodenal ulcers have been rarely diagnosed in patients with schizophrenia. The cytoprotective role of dopamine in animal models of gastrointestinal ulcerations has also been described. Interestingly, Parkinson’s disease (PD) might share common pathophysiological links with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) as epidemiological and genetic links already suggest. Thus, the aim of our study was to review the existing literature on the role of the gastrointestinal dopaminergic system in IBD pathogenesis and progression. Methods: a systematic search was conducted according to the PRISMA methodology. Results: twenty-four studies satisfied the predetermined criteria and were included in our qualitative analysis. Due to different observations (cross-sectional studies) as well as experimental setups and applied methodologies (in vivo and in vitro studies) a meta-analysis could not be performed. No ongoing clinical trials with dopaminergic compounds in IBD patients were found. Conclusions: the impairment of the dopaminergic system seems to be a significant, yet underestimated, feature of IBD, and more in-depth observational studies are needed to further support the existing preclinical data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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26 pages, 5512 KiB  
Review
Mechanistic Insight from Preclinical Models of Parkinson’s Disease Could Help Redirect Clinical Trial Efforts in GDNF Therapy
by Karen M. Delgado-Minjares, Daniel Martinez-Fong, Irma A. Martínez-Dávila, Cecilia Bañuelos, M. E. Gutierrez-Castillo, Víctor Manuel Blanco-Alvarez, Maria-del-Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo, José Luna-Muñoz, Mar Pacheco-Herrero and Luis O. Soto-Rojas
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11702; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111702 - 28 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3015
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by four pathognomonic hallmarks: (1) motor and non-motor deficits; (2) neuroinflammation and oxidative stress; (3) pathological aggregates of the α-synuclein (α-syn) protein; (4) neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal system. Recent evidence sustains that the aggregation of pathological α-syn occurs [...] Read more.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by four pathognomonic hallmarks: (1) motor and non-motor deficits; (2) neuroinflammation and oxidative stress; (3) pathological aggregates of the α-synuclein (α-syn) protein; (4) neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal system. Recent evidence sustains that the aggregation of pathological α-syn occurs in the early stages of the disease, becoming the first trigger of neuroinflammation and subsequent neurodegeneration. Thus, a therapeutic line aims at striking back α-synucleinopathy and neuroinflammation to impede neurodegeneration. Another therapeutic line is restoring the compromised dopaminergic system using neurotrophic factors, particularly the glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). Preclinical studies with GDNF have provided encouraging results but often lack evaluation of anti-α-syn and anti-inflammatory effects. In contrast, clinical trials have yielded imprecise results and have reported the emergence of severe side effects. Here, we analyze the discrepancy between preclinical and clinical outcomes, review the mechanisms of the aggregation of pathological α-syn, including neuroinflammation, and evaluate the neurorestorative properties of GDNF, emphasizing its anti-α-syn and anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical and clinical trials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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15 pages, 1942 KiB  
Review
Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth as Potential Therapeutic Target in Parkinson’s Disease
by Adela Dănău, Laura Dumitrescu, Antonia Lefter, Delia Tulbă and Bogdan Ovidiu Popescu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11663; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111663 - 28 Oct 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3754
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the gut microbiota and the brain are closely connected via the so-called gut–brain axis. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) is a gut dysbiosis in which the small intestine is abundantly colonized by bacteria that are typically found in the [...] Read more.
Increasing evidence suggests that the gut microbiota and the brain are closely connected via the so-called gut–brain axis. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) is a gut dysbiosis in which the small intestine is abundantly colonized by bacteria that are typically found in the colon. Though not a disease, it may result in intestinal symptoms caused by the accumulation of microbial gases in the intestine. Intestinal inflammation, malabsorption and vitamin imbalances may also develop. SIBO can be eradicated by one or several courses of antibiotics but reappears if the predisposing condition persists. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative proteinopathy for which disease modifying interventions are not available. Sporadic forms may start in the gut years before the development of clinical features. Increased gastrointestinal transit time is present in most people with PD early during the course of the disease, predisposing to gut dysbiosis, including SIBO. The role that gut dysbiosis may play in the etiopathogenesis of PD is not fully understood yet. Here, we discuss the possibility that SIBO could contribute to the progression of PD, by promoting or preventing neurodegeneration, thus being a potential target for treatments aiming at slowing down the progression of PD. The direct symptomatic impact of SIBO and its impact on symptomatic medication are also briefly discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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12 pages, 723 KiB  
Review
The PKR/P38/RIPK1 Signaling Pathway as a Therapeutic Target in Alzheimer’s Disease
by Jacques Hugon and Claire Paquet
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3136; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063136 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3533
Abstract
Neuropathological lesions in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) include amyloid plaques formed by the accumulation of amyloid peptides, neurofibrillary tangles made of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, synaptic and neuronal degenerations, and neuroinflammation. The cause of AD is unknown, but according to the amyloid hypothesis, amyloid oligomers [...] Read more.
Neuropathological lesions in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) include amyloid plaques formed by the accumulation of amyloid peptides, neurofibrillary tangles made of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, synaptic and neuronal degenerations, and neuroinflammation. The cause of AD is unknown, but according to the amyloid hypothesis, amyloid oligomers could lead to the activation of kinases such as eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2 (PKR), p38, and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), which all belong to the same stress-activated pathway. Many toxic kinase activations have been described in AD patients and in experimental models. A p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor was recently tested in clinical trials but with unsuccessful results. The complex PKR/P38/RIPK1 (PKR/dual specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 6 (MKK6)/P38/MAP kinase-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2)/RIPK1) is highly activated in AD brains and in the brains of AD transgenic animals. To delineate the implication of this pathway in AD, we carried out a search on PubMed including PKR/MKK6/p38/MK2/RIPK1, Alzheimer, and therapeutics. The involvement of this signaling pathway in the genesis of AD lesions, including Aβ accumulations and tau phosphorylation as well as cognitive decline, is demonstrated by the reports described in this review. A future combination strategy with kinase inhibitors should be envisaged to modulate the consequences for neurons and other brain cells linked to the abnormal activation of this pathway. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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44 pages, 4392 KiB  
Review
Insulin-Like Growth Factor 2 As a Possible Neuroprotective Agent and Memory Enhancer—Its Comparative Expression, Processing and Signaling in Mammalian CNS
by Alexander Beletskiy, Ekaterina Chesnokova and Natalia Bal
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1849; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041849 - 12 Feb 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4337
Abstract
A number of studies performed on rodents suggest that insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2) or its analogs may possibly be used for treating some conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, autistic spectrum disorders or aging-related cognitive impairment. Still, for translational research a comparative [...] Read more.
A number of studies performed on rodents suggest that insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2) or its analogs may possibly be used for treating some conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, autistic spectrum disorders or aging-related cognitive impairment. Still, for translational research a comparative knowledge about the function of IGF-2 and related molecules in model organisms (rats and mice) and humans is necessary. There is a number of important differences in IGF-2 signaling between species. In the present review we emphasize species-specific patterns of IGF-2 expression in rodents, humans and some other mammals, using, among other sources, publicly available transcriptomic data. We provide a detailed description of Igf2 mRNA expression regulation and pre-pro-IGF-2 protein processing in different species. We also summarize the function of IGF-binding proteins. We describe three different receptors able to bind IGF-2 and discuss the role of IGF-2 signaling in learning and memory, as well as in neuroprotection. We hope that comprehensive understanding of similarities and differences in IGF-2 signaling between model organisms and humans will be useful for development of more effective medicines targeting IGF-2 receptors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacology of Neurodegenerative Diseases)
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