Nutrients

Research

11 pages, 1001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tandem Breastfeeding: A Descriptive Analysis of the Nutritional Value of Milk When Feeding a Younger and Older Child

by Elena Sinkiewicz-Darol, Urszula Bernatowicz-Łojko, Katarzyna Łubiech, Iwona Adamczyk, Magdalena Twarużek, Barbara Baranowska, Krzysztof Skowron and Diane L. Spatz

Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010277 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 10393

Abstract

Breastfeeding is a gold standard of feeding of newborns and infants. Tandem breastfeeding (TBF) is feeding two children of different ages at the same time. The knowledge about the composition of human milk in prolonged lactation is still scarce. Milk from tandem breastfeeding [...] Read more.

Breastfeeding is a gold standard of feeding of newborns and infants. Tandem breastfeeding (TBF) is feeding two children of different ages at the same time. The knowledge about the composition of human milk in prolonged lactation is still scarce. Milk from tandem breastfeeding women and after weaning was examined. Milk samples were collected from 13 TBF mothers. A 24-h milk collection was done. Analyses of fat, protein, carbohydrate and energy content were performed using MIRIS. Sociodemographic characteristics of TBF mothers was done. Higher fat content, energy value and total protein concentration was found in TBFM milk during tandem breastfeeding, than in milk after weaning the older child. The carbohydrate content remained stable. The composition of breastmilk, in terms of macronutrients, changes after weaning, taking into account the nutritional requirements of the younger child. The milk of nursing mothers in tandem did not show diurnal variability in individual components. These findings suggest an adaptive role of human milk to nutrient requirements of newborn and older children. The results may support the promotion of long breastfeeding, including tandem breastfeeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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19 pages, 4147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endocrine-Disrupting Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Breast Milk: Changes during Lactation

by Agata Witczak, Anna Pohoryło and Hassan Abdel-Gawad

Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010229 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4404

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to assess infant safety associated with the occurrence of endocrine-disrupting organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in breast milk. Moreover, the association between pregnant mothers’ dietary habits and these compounds levels in breast milk was investigated. Breast milk was [...] Read more.

The aim of the present study was to assess infant safety associated with the occurrence of endocrine-disrupting organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in breast milk. Moreover, the association between pregnant mothers’ dietary habits and these compounds levels in breast milk was investigated. Breast milk was collected at various stages of lactation. The samples were analyzed by the GC-MS method. The OCP concentrations ranged from < limit of detection (LOD) to 6.81 ng/g lipids. The highest OCP concentrations in breast milk occurred primarily within the first month of lactation, and decreased over the lactation period. It was found that the maternal consumption of certain food products—in particular pork, beef, poultry, eggs, and dairy products—could have affected the content of 1,1’-(2,2,2-Trichloroethane-1,1-diyl)bis(4-chlorobenzene), called DDT and its metabolites in the breast milk. The levels of beta-endosulfan were positively correlated with fish and poultry consumption. The redundancy analysis indicated that the diets of the pregnant women had an important impact on pesticide residues in the breast milk. There is a potential possibility of lowering the content of organochlorine compounds in breast milk by adhering to nutritional recommendations, e.g., avoiding the excessive consumption of fish and other raw food materials of unknown origin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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13 pages, 281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Changes in Breast Milk Fatty Acids Contents: A Case Study of Malay Breastfeeding Women

by Geok Lin Khor, Seok Shin Tan, Eline Stoutjesdijk, Kock Wai Tony Ng, Ilse Khouw, Marjolijn Bragt, Anne Schaafsma, D. A. Janneke Dijck-Brouwer and Frits A. J. Muskiet

Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010101 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3892

Abstract

The composition of human breast milk changes in the first two months of life, adapting itself to the evolving needs of the growing new-born. Lipids in milk are a source of energy, essential fatty acids (FA), fat-soluble vitamins, and vital bioactive components. Information [...] Read more.

The composition of human breast milk changes in the first two months of life, adapting itself to the evolving needs of the growing new-born. Lipids in milk are a source of energy, essential fatty acids (FA), fat-soluble vitamins, and vital bioactive components. Information on breast milk FA of Malaysian lactating women is scarce. Based on convenience sampling, a total of 20 Malay breastfeeding women who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were recruited. Breast milk was collected three times from each subject at consecutive intervals of 2–3 weeks apart. A total of 60 breast milk samples were collected and classified into “transitional milk” (n = 8), “early milk” (n = 26) and “mature milk” (n = 26). All milk samples were air freighted to University of Groningen, Netherlands for analysis. The dominant breast milk FA were oleic acid, constituting 33% of total fatty acids, followed by palmitic acid (26%). Both these FA and the essential FA, linoleic acid (10%) and alpha-linolenic acid (0.4%), showed no significant changes from transitional to mature milk. Breast milk ratio of n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was comparatively high, exceeding 10 throughout the lactation period, suggesting a healthier balance of PUFA intake is needed in pregnancy and at postpartum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

14 pages, 272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Infant and Maternal Factors on Energy and Macronutrient Composition of Human Milk

by Agnieszka Bzikowska-Jura, Piotr Sobieraj, Dorota Szostak-Węgierek and Aleksandra Wesołowska

Nutrients 2020, 12(9), 2591; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092591 - 26 Aug 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5090

Abstract

The present study investigates the influence of selected infant and maternal factors on the energy and macronutrient composition of mature human milk (HM). The study enrolled 77 mothers at 4–8 weeks postpartum. Each mother provided 1 sample of HM. Each extracted HM sample [...] Read more.

The present study investigates the influence of selected infant and maternal factors on the energy and macronutrient composition of mature human milk (HM). The study enrolled 77 mothers at 4–8 weeks postpartum. Each mother provided 1 sample of HM. Each extracted HM sample was formed by mixing four subsamples of HM, each of which were obtained in one predefined 6-h periods of the day. Among maternal factors, the analysis included: anthropometric data before and after pregnancy; weight gain in pregnancy; body composition, assessed using the Maltron BioScan 920-II to analyze bioimpedance; and dietary intake, assessed with three-day dietary records. Among the neonatal factors, birth weight and length, number of daily feedings and type of delivery were included. The composition of HM, including energy content, protein, fat and carbohydrate concentrations, was analyzed using the Miris human milk analyzer. Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients and multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between the selected maternal and infant factors and HM milk composition. It was found that total protein content of HM was correlated with pre-pregnancy BMI (Spearman rho = 0.238; p = 0.037), current lean body mass (Spearman rho = −0.293, p = 0.01) and total water content (Spearman rho = −0.315, p = 0.005). Carbohydrates were the only macronutrients whose composition was significantly affected by the infant factors. It was reported that higher carbohydrate content was associated with male sex (OR = 4.52, p = 0.049). Our results show that maternal and infant factors, especially maternal pre-pregnancy and current nutritional status and infant sex, interact and affect HM composition, suggesting that macronutrient and energy content in HM may be determined in pregnancy and may have unique compositional profile for every mother–infant dyad. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

14 pages, 2574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Maternal Diet and Milk Lipid Composition on the Infant Gut and Maternal Milk Microbiomes

by Michal Dayagi Babakobi, Leah Reshef, Shalev Gihaz, Bogdan Belgorodsky, Ayelet Fishman, Yoram Bujanover and Uri Gophna

Nutrients 2020, 12(9), 2539; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092539 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5994

Abstract

Inter-subject variability in human milk microbiome is well known; however, its origins and possible relationship to the mother’s diet are still debated. We investigated associations between maternal nutrition, milk fatty acids composition and microbiomes in mother–infant dyads. Breast milk and infant fecal samples [...] Read more.

Inter-subject variability in human milk microbiome is well known; however, its origins and possible relationship to the mother’s diet are still debated. We investigated associations between maternal nutrition, milk fatty acids composition and microbiomes in mother–infant dyads. Breast milk and infant fecal samples were collected across three time points (one week, one month and three months postpartum) from 22 mother–infant pairs. Food frequency questionnaires for the months of pregnancy and three months postpartum were collected. Milk fatty acids were analyzed by GC–MS and the microbiome in breast milk and infant feces was determined by 16S rRNA sequencing. Statistical interactions were computed using Spearman’s method and corrected for multiple comparisons. We found significant negative correlation between Streptococcus relative abundance in maternal milk and intake of unsaturated fatty acids and folic acid at one month postpartum. At three months postpartum, vitamin B-12 consumption was significantly associated with a single operational taxonomic unit belonging to Streptococcus. Comparison between milk microbiome and lipid composition showed, one-month postpartum, significant negative correlation between Streptococcus relative abundance and the abundance of oleic acid. Additional correlations were detected between Staphylococcus hominis and two medium-chain saturated fatty acids. Our results reinforce the hypothesis that maternal nutrition may affect milk microbiome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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21 pages, 2734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synbiotic Effect of Bifidobacterium lactis CNCM I-3446 and Bovine Milk-Derived Oligosaccharides on Infant Gut Microbiota

by Benoît Marsaux, Pieter Van den Abbeele, Jonas Ghyselinck, Guénolée Prioult, Massimo Marzorati and Biljana Bogićević

Nutrients 2020, 12(8), 2268; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12082268 - 29 Jul 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4855

Abstract

Background: This study evaluated the impact of Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis CNCM I-3446, Bovine Milk-derived OligoSaccharides (BMOS) and their combination on infant gut microbiota in vitro. In addition, a novel strategy consisting of preculturing B. lactis with BMOS to further enhance their potential [...] Read more.

Background: This study evaluated the impact of Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis CNCM I-3446, Bovine Milk-derived OligoSaccharides (BMOS) and their combination on infant gut microbiota in vitro. In addition, a novel strategy consisting of preculturing B. lactis with BMOS to further enhance their potential synbiotic effects was assessed. Method: Short-term fecal batch fermentations (48 h) were used to assess the microbial composition and activity modulated by BMOS alone, B. lactis grown on BMOS or dextrose alone, or their combinations on different three-month-old infant microbiota. Results: BMOS alone significantly induced acetate and lactate production (leading to pH decrease) and stimulated bifidobacterial growth in 10 donors. A further in-depth study on two different donors proved B. lactis ability to colonize the infant microbiota, regardless of the competitiveness of the environment. BMOS further enhanced this engraftment, suggesting a strong synbiotic effect. This was also observed at the microbiota activity level, especially in a donor containing low initial levels of bifidobacteria. In this donor, preculturing B. lactis with BMOS strengthened further the early modulation of microbiota activity observed after 6 h. Conclusion: This study demonstrated the strong synbiotic effect of BMOS and B. lactis on the infant gut microbiota, and suggests a strategy to improve its effectiveness in an otherwise low-Bifidobacterium microbiota. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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17 pages, 1447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Allergy and the Presence of Nonhuman Proteinaceous Molecules in Human Milk

by Pieter M. Dekker, Sjef Boeren, Alet H. Wijga, Gerard H. Koppelman, Jacques J. M. Vervoort and Kasper A. Hettinga

Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041169 - 22 Apr 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4190

Abstract

Human milk contains proteins and/or protein fragments that originate from nonhuman organisms. These proteinaceous molecules, of which the secretion might be related to the mother’s allergy status, could be involved in the development of the immune system of the infant. This may lead, [...] Read more.

Human milk contains proteins and/or protein fragments that originate from nonhuman organisms. These proteinaceous molecules, of which the secretion might be related to the mother’s allergy status, could be involved in the development of the immune system of the infant. This may lead, for example, to sensitization or the induction of allergen-specific tolerance. The aim of this study was to investigate the relation between maternal allergy and the levels of nonhuman proteinaceous molecules in their milk. In this study, we analysed trypsin-digested human milk serum proteins of 10 allergic mothers and 10 nonallergic mothers. A search was carried out to identify peptide sequences originating from bovine or other allergenic proteins. Several methods were applied to confirm the identification of these sequences, and the differences between both groups were investigated. Out of the 78 identified nonhuman peptide sequences, 62 sequences matched Bos taurus proteins. Eight peptide sequences of bovine

β

-lactoglobulin had significantly higher levels in milk from allergic mothers than in milk from nonallergic mothers. Dietary bovine

β

-lactoglobulin may be absorbed through the intestinal barrier and secreted into human milk. This seems to be significantly higher in allergic mothers and might have consequences for the development of the immune system of their breastfed infant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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21 pages, 5349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Milk Oligosaccharide Profile Variation Throughout Postpartum in Healthy Women in a Brazilian Cohort

by Ana Lorena Ferreira, Ronaldo Alves, Amanda Figueiredo, Nadya Alves-Santos, Nathalia Freitas-Costa, Mônica Batalha, Chloe Yonemitsu, Nadia Manivong, Annalee Furst, Lars Bode and Gilberto Kac

Nutrients 2020, 12(3), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030790 - 17 Mar 2020

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 5650

Abstract

Human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) composition varies throughout lactation and can be influenced by maternal characteristics. This study describes HMO variation up to three months postpartum and explores the influences of maternal sociodemographic and anthropometric characteristics in a Brazilian prospective cohort. We followed 101 [...] Read more.

Human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) composition varies throughout lactation and can be influenced by maternal characteristics. This study describes HMO variation up to three months postpartum and explores the influences of maternal sociodemographic and anthropometric characteristics in a Brazilian prospective cohort. We followed 101 subjects from 28–35 gestational weeks (baseline) and throughout lactation at 2–8 (visit 1), 28–50 (visit 2) and 88–119 days postpartum (visit 3). Milk samples were collected at visits 1, 2 and 3, and 19 HMOs were quantified usinghigh-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FL). Friedman post-hoc test, Spearman rank correlation for maternal characteristics and HMOs and non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) were used to define the HMO profile. Most women were secretors (89.1%) and presented high proportion of 2′-fucosyllactose (2′FL) at all three sample times, while lacto-N-tetraose (LNT, 2–8 days) and lacto-N-fucopentaose II (LNFPII, 28–50 and 88–119 days) were the most abundant HMOs in non-secretor women. Over the course of lactation, total HMO weight concentrations (g/L) decreased, but total HMO molar concentrations (mmol/L) increased, highlighting differential changes in HMO composition over time. In addition, maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and parity influence the HMO composition in healthy women in this Brazilian cohort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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18 pages, 4728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Subclinical Mastitis in a European Multicenter Cohort: Prevalence, Impact on Human Milk (HM) Composition, and Association with Infant HM Intake and Growth

by Tinu Mary Samuel, Carlos Antonio De Castro, Stephane Dubascoux, Michael Affolter, Francesca Giuffrida, Claude Billeaud, Jean-Charles Picaud, Massimo Agosti, Isam Al-Jashi, Almerinda Barroso Pereira, Maria Jose Costeira, Maria Gorett Silva, Giovanna Marchini, Thameur Rakza, Kirsti Haaland, Tom Stiris, Silvia-Maria Stoicescu, Cecilia Martínez-Costa, Mireilla Vanpee, Magnus Domellöf, Eurídice Castañeda-Gutiérrez, Sagar Kiran Thakkar and Irma Silva-Zolezzi Show full author list Hide full author list

Nutrients 2020, 12(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010105 - 30 Dec 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6560

Abstract

Background: Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is an inflammatory condition of the mammary gland. We examined the effects of SCM on human milk (HM) composition, infant growth, and HM intake in a mother–infant cohort from seven European countries. Methods: HM samples were obtained from 305 [...] Read more.

Background: Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is an inflammatory condition of the mammary gland. We examined the effects of SCM on human milk (HM) composition, infant growth, and HM intake in a mother–infant cohort from seven European countries. Methods: HM samples were obtained from 305 mothers at 2, 17, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days postpartum. SCM status was assessed using HM Sodium (Na): Potassium (K) ratio >0.6. Levels of different macro- and micronutrients were analyzed in HM. Results: SCM prevalence in the first month of lactation was 35.4%. Mean gestational age at delivery was lower and birth by C-section higher in SCM mothers (p ≤ 0.001). HM concentrations of lactose, DHA, linolenic acid, calcium, and phosphorous (p < 0.05 for all) was lower, while total protein, alpha-lactalbumin, lactoferrin, albumin, arachidonic acid to DHA ratio, n-6 to n-3 ratio and minerals (iron, selenium, manganese, zinc, and copper) were higher (p < 0.001 for all) in mothers with SCM. There were no differences in infant growth and HM intake between non-SCM and SCM groups. Conclusion: We document, for the first time, in a large European standardized and longitudinal study, a high prevalence of SCM in early lactation and demonstrate that SCM is associated with significant changes in the macro- and micronutrient composition of HM. Future studies exploring the relation of SCM with breastfeeding behaviors and developmental outcomes are warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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13 pages, 1323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Human Milk Fatty Acid Composition during Lactation: The Ulm SPATZ Health Study

by Linda P. Siziba, Leonie Lorenz, Bernd Stahl, Marko Mank, Tamas Marosvölgyi, Tamas Decsi, Dietrich Rothenbacher and Jon Genuneit

Nutrients 2019, 11(12), 2842; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11122842 - 20 Nov 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5482

Abstract

The lipid fraction of human milk provides the infant with the fatty acids that are necessary for optimal growth and development. The aim of this study was to investigate the fatty acid composition of human milk at three time points during lactation and [...] Read more.

The lipid fraction of human milk provides the infant with the fatty acids that are necessary for optimal growth and development. The aim of this study was to investigate the fatty acid composition of human milk at three time points during lactation and its change over time using appropriate statistical methods. Human milk samples from breastfeeding mothers at 6 weeks (n = 706), 6 months (n = 483), and 12 months (n = 81 with all three time points) were analyzed. Centered log-ratio (clr) transformation was applied to the fatty acid data. Principal component analysis (PCA) and generalized linear model-based repeated measure analysis were used to assess changes over time. The total lipid content was significantly higher at 6 months (β = 0.199, p < 0.029) and 12 months of lactation (β = 0.421, p < 0.001). The constituents of C20:3n-6 and C20:3n-3 were lower at 6 months (p < 0.001). Four distinct sub-compositional fatty acid groups were only identified at 12 months of lactation. The inclusion of small fatty acids of small constituent size in the analysis resulted in a shift in the balance between fatty acid constituents. Human milk fatty acid composition during prolonged lactation is different from that of human milk during a short duration of lactation. Our findings support the hypothesis that a combination of multiple fatty acids is important in fatty acid profiling beyond the presentation of individual fatty acids. Furthermore, the high variability of small fatty acids warrants attention because a compositional analysis may show more pronounced changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

13 pages, 323 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lactobacillus Bacteria in Breast Milk

by Katarzyna Łubiech and Magdalena Twarużek

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3783; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123783 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7239

Abstract

Breast milk is an optimal food for infants and toddlers. The composition of breast milk adapts to the needs of the developing organism, satisfying nutritional needs at an early stage of growth and development. The results of research to date have shown that [...] Read more.

Breast milk is an optimal food for infants and toddlers. The composition of breast milk adapts to the needs of the developing organism, satisfying nutritional needs at an early stage of growth and development. The results of research to date have shown that breast milk is the best food for a child, containing not only nutrients but also biologically active substances that aid in the optimal, proper growth and development of infants. Among the many components of breast milk, an important element is the probiotic microflora, including bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus spp. These organisms exert a multidirectional, health-promoting effect on the body of children who consume breast milk. The number of lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus, colonizing the breast milk environment and their species diversity varies and depends on many factors, both maternal and environmental. Breast milk, as a recommended food for infants, is an important source of probiotic microflora. The aim of this study was to present the current understanding of probiotic bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus present in breast milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

20 pages, 1211 KiB

Open AccessReview

Infant Formula Supplemented with Biotics: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

by Seppo Salminen, Bernd Stahl, Gabriel Vinderola and Hania Szajewska

Nutrients 2020, 12(7), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071952 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 17033

Abstract

Breastfeeding is natural and the optimal basis of infant nutrition and development, with many benefits for maternal health. Human milk is a dynamic fluid fulfilling an infant’s specific nutritional requirements and guiding the growth, developmental, and physiological processes of the infant. Human milk [...] Read more.

Breastfeeding is natural and the optimal basis of infant nutrition and development, with many benefits for maternal health. Human milk is a dynamic fluid fulfilling an infant’s specific nutritional requirements and guiding the growth, developmental, and physiological processes of the infant. Human milk is considered unique in composition, and it is influenced by several factors, such as maternal diet and health, body composition, and geographic region. Human milk stands as a model for infant formula providing nutritional solutions for infants not able to receive enough mother’s milk. Infant formulas aim to mimic the composition and functionality of human milk by providing ingredients reflecting those of the latest human milk insights, such as oligosaccharides, bacteria, and bacterial metabolites. The objective of this narrative review is to discuss the most recent developments in infant formula with a special focus on human milk oligosaccharides and postbiotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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18 pages, 1616 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bifidobacterium longum Subspecies infantis (B. infantis) in Pediatric Nutrition: Current State of Knowledge

by Maciej Chichlowski, Neil Shah, Jennifer L. Wampler, Steven S. Wu and Jon A. Vanderhoof

Nutrients 2020, 12(6), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061581 - 28 May 2020

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 13184

Abstract

Since originally isolated in 1899, the genus Bifidobacterium has been demonstrated to predominate in the gut microbiota of breastfed infants and to benefit the host by accelerating maturation of the immune response, balancing the immune system to suppress inflammation, improving intestinal barrier function, [...] Read more.

Since originally isolated in 1899, the genus Bifidobacterium has been demonstrated to predominate in the gut microbiota of breastfed infants and to benefit the host by accelerating maturation of the immune response, balancing the immune system to suppress inflammation, improving intestinal barrier function, and increasing acetate production. In particular, Bifidobacterium longum subspecies infantis (B. infantis) is well adapted to the infant gut and has co-evolved with the mother-infant dyad and gut microbiome, in part due to its ability to consume complex carbohydrates found in human milk. B. infantis and its human host have a symbiotic relationship that protects the preterm or term neonate and nourishes a healthy gut microbiota prior to weaning. To provide benefits associated with B. infantis to all infants, a number of commercialized strains have been developed over the past decades. As new ingredients become available, safety and suitability must be assessed in preclinical and clinical studies. Consideration of the full clinical evidence for B. infantis use in pediatric nutrition is critical to better understand its potential impacts on infant health and development. Herein we summarize the recent clinical studies utilizing select strains of commercialized B. infantis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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26 pages, 1946 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Impact of Dietary Fucosylated Oligosaccharides and Glycoproteins of Human Milk on Infant Well-Being

by Magdalena Orczyk-Pawiłowicz and Jolanta Lis-Kuberka

Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041105 - 16 Apr 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7230

Abstract

Apart from optimal nutritional value, human milk is the feeding strategy to support the immature immunological system of developing newborns and infants. The most beneficial dietary carbohydrate components of breast milk are human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and glycoproteins (HMGs), involved in both specific [...] Read more.

Apart from optimal nutritional value, human milk is the feeding strategy to support the immature immunological system of developing newborns and infants. The most beneficial dietary carbohydrate components of breast milk are human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and glycoproteins (HMGs), involved in both specific and nonspecific immunity. Fucosylated oligosaccharides represent the largest fraction of human milk oligosaccharides, with the simplest and the most abundant being 2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL). Fucosylated oligosaccharides, as well as glycans of glycoproteins, as beneficial dietary sugars, elicit anti-adhesive properties against fucose-dependent pathogens, and on the other hand are crucial for growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria, and in this aspect participate in shaping a healthy microbiome. Well-documented secretor status related differences in the fucosylation profile of HMOs and HMGs may play a key but underestimated role in assessment of susceptibility to fucose-dependent pathogen infections, with a potential impact on applied clinical procedures. Nevertheless, due to genetic factors, about 20% of mothers do not provide their infants with beneficial dietary carbohydrates such as 2′-FL and other α1,2-fucosylated oligosaccharides and glycans of glycoproteins, despite breastfeeding them. The lack of such structures may have important implications for a wide range of aspects of infant well-being and healthcare. In light of the above, some artificial mixtures used in infant nutrition are supplemented with 2′-FL to more closely approximate the unique composition of maternal milk, including dietary-derived fucosylated oligosaccharides and glycoproteins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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30 pages, 812 KiB

Open AccessReview

Breast Milk, a Source of Beneficial Microbes and Associated Benefits for Infant Health

by Katríona E. Lyons, C. Anthony Ryan, Eugene M. Dempsey, R. Paul Ross and Catherine Stanton

Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041039 - 9 Apr 2020

Cited by 329 | Viewed by 215259

Abstract

Human breast milk is considered the optimum feeding regime for newborn infants due to its ability to provide complete nutrition and many bioactive health factors. Breast feeding is associated with improved infant health and immune development, less incidences of gastrointestinal disease and lower [...] Read more.

Human breast milk is considered the optimum feeding regime for newborn infants due to its ability to provide complete nutrition and many bioactive health factors. Breast feeding is associated with improved infant health and immune development, less incidences of gastrointestinal disease and lower mortality rates than formula fed infants. As well as providing fundamental nutrients to the growing infant, breast milk is a source of commensal bacteria which further enhance infant health by preventing pathogen adhesion and promoting gut colonisation of beneficial microbes. While breast milk was initially considered a sterile fluid and microbes isolated were considered contaminants, it is now widely accepted that breast milk is home to its own unique microbiome. The origins of bacteria in breast milk have been subject to much debate, however, the possibility of an entero-mammary pathway allowing for transfer of microbes from maternal gut to the mammary gland is one potential pathway. Human milk derived strains can be regarded as potential probiotics; therefore, many studies have focused on isolating strains from milk for subsequent use in infant health and nutrition markets. This review aims to discuss mammary gland development in preparation for lactation as well as explore the microbial composition and origins of the human milk microbiota with a focus on probiotic development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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15 pages, 305 KiB

Open AccessReview

Arachidonic Acid in Human Milk

by Norman Salem, Jr. and Peter Van Dael

Nutrients 2020, 12(3), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030626 - 27 Feb 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7764

Abstract

Breastfeeding is universally recommended as the optimal choice of infant feeding and consequently human milk has been extensively investigated to unravel its unique nutrient profile. The human milk lipid composition is unique and supplies specifically long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), in particular, arachidonic [...] Read more.

Breastfeeding is universally recommended as the optimal choice of infant feeding and consequently human milk has been extensively investigated to unravel its unique nutrient profile. The human milk lipid composition is unique and supplies specifically long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), in particular, arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n–6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n–3). Arachidonic acid (ARA) is the most predominant long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid in human milk, albeit at low concentrations as compared to other fatty acids. It occurs predominantly in the triglyceride form and to a lesser extent as milk fat globule membrane phospholipids. Human milk ARA levels are modulated by dietary intake as demonstrated by animal and human studies and consequently vary dependent on dietary habits among mothers and regions across the globe. ARA serves as a precursor to eicosanoids and endocannabinoids that also occur in human milk. A review of scientific and clinical studies reveals that ARA plays an important role in physiological development and its related functions during early life nutrition. Therefore, ARA is an important nutrient during infancy and childhood and, as such, appropriate attention is required regarding its nutritional status and presence in the infant diet. Data are emerging indicating considerable genetic variation in encoding for desaturases and other essential fatty acid metabolic enzymes that may influence the ARA level as well as other LC-PUFAs. Human milk from well-nourished mothers has adequate levels of both ARA and DHA to support nutritional and developmental needs of infants. In case breastfeeding is not possible and infant formula is being fed, experts recommend that both ARA and DHA are added at levels present in human milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

13 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessReview

Human Milk’s Hidden Gift: Implications of the Milk Microbiome for Preterm Infants’ Health

by Isadora Beghetti, Elena Biagi, Silvia Martini, Patrizia Brigidi, Luigi Corvaglia and Arianna Aceti

Nutrients 2019, 11(12), 2944; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11122944 - 4 Dec 2019

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7554

Abstract

Breastfeeding is considered the gold standard for infants’ nutrition, as mother’s own milk (MOM) provides nutritional and bioactive factors functional to optimal development. Early life microbiome is one of the main contributors to short and long-term infant health status, with the gut microbiota [...] Read more.

Breastfeeding is considered the gold standard for infants’ nutrition, as mother’s own milk (MOM) provides nutritional and bioactive factors functional to optimal development. Early life microbiome is one of the main contributors to short and long-term infant health status, with the gut microbiota (GM) being the most studied ecosystem. Some human milk (HM) bioactive factors, such as HM prebiotic carbohydrates that select for beneficial bacteria, and the specific human milk microbiota (HMM) are emerging as early mediators in the relationship between the development of GM in early life and clinical outcomes. The beneficial role of HM becomes even more crucial for preterm infants, who are exposed to significant risks of severe infection in early life as well as to adverse short and long-term outcomes. When MOM is unavailable or insufficient, donor human milk (DHM) constitutes the optimal nutritional choice. However, little is known about the specific effect of DHM on preterm GM and its potential functional implication on HMM. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarize recent findings on HMM origin and composition and discuss the role of HMM on infant health and development, with a specific focus on preterm infants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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12 pages, 665 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

Do Human Milk Oligosaccharides Protect Against Infant Atopic Disorders and Food Allergy?

by Soo Min Han, Aristea Binia, Keith M. Godfrey, Sarah El-Heis and Wayne S. Cutfield

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 3212; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103212 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4613

Abstract

Atopic disorders (AD), often coexistent with food allergy (FA), start developing in early life and have lifelong health consequences. Breastfeeding is thought to be protective against AD and FA, but the data are controversial, and mechanisms are not well understood. Human milk oligosaccharides [...] Read more.

Atopic disorders (AD), often coexistent with food allergy (FA), start developing in early life and have lifelong health consequences. Breastfeeding is thought to be protective against AD and FA, but the data are controversial, and mechanisms are not well understood. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex carbohydrates that are abundant in human milk. These are thought to contribute to the development of the infant immune system by (i) promoting healthy microbiome, (ii) inhibiting pathogen binding to gut mucosa and (iii) modulating the immune system. Differences in microbiome composition between allergic and healthy infants have been observed, regardless of breastfeeding history. To date, limited studies have examined the preventive effects of HMOs on AD and FA in infants and current data relies on observation studies as trials of varying HMO intake through randomising individuals to breastfeeding are unethical. There is evidence for beneficial effects of breastfeeding on lowering the risks of FA, eczema and asthma but there are inconsistencies amongst studies in the duration of breastfeeding, diagnostic criteria for AD and the age at which the outcome was assessed. Furthermore, current analytical methods primarily used today only allow detection of 16–20 major HMOs while more than 100 types have been identified. More large-scale longitudinal studies are required to investigate the role of HMO composition and the impact of changes over the lactation period in preventing AD and FA later in life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Milk, HMO, Lactation and Application in Infant Feeding)

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