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Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants
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Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants

A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Phytochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 August 2025 | Viewed by 22012

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Alfred Maroyi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
Interests: ethnobotany; phytochemistry; ethnopharmacology; traditional medicine; plants

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Several secondary metabolites from medicinal plants have been used by mankind for centuries as therapeutic agents. These secondary metabolites often called phytomedicines contain chemical compounds that act on the animal body to prevent disorders and to restore or maintain health. The secondary metabolites or phytomedicines are usually multifunctional compounds in nature, capable of exhibiting several pharmacological properties. Hence extracts of medicinal plants often interfere with several animal organs, tissues, cells and molecular targets, resulting in restoration of health or relieving symptoms of ailments or diseases. Researchers around the world are therefore, evaluating the concentration of phytochemicals in medicinal plants, the appropriate dosages and frequency, and the most effective method of administration of traditional medicines. Exploration of the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of medicinal plants may lead to the discovery of new remedies health promoting products or pharmaceutical drugs.

In this Special Issue, we would like to invite scientists to submit research manuscripts, reviews, mini-reviews, opinions and short communications that focus on medicinal plants, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of medicinal plants, clinical trials, quality control, safety, toxicity and efficacy evaluations of medicinal plant.

Prof. Dr. Alfred Maroyi
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Plants is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • clinical trials of medicinal plants
  • Indigenous knowledge systems
  • in vitro and in vivo biological activities
  • modes of action of herbal drugs and phytomedicines
  • pharmacological properties
  • phytochemical compounds
  • quality control, safety and efficacy evaluations
  • traditional medicines

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 960 KiB  
Article
Chemodiversity and Antinociceptive Activity of Amorpha fruticosa L. Essential Oil
by Miljana R. Đorđević Zlatković, Nikola M. Stojanović, Dragan B. Zlatković, Pavle J. Randjelović and Niko S. Radulović
Plants 2024, 13(21), 3045; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13213045 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 396
Abstract
An essential oil dominated by germacrene D (19.3% by GC) was isolated from the fresh fruit of Amorpha fruticosa L. (Fabaceae). Agglomerative clustering and k-means clustering were employed to compare the composition of the oil with the existing literature data, suggesting that [...] Read more.
An essential oil dominated by germacrene D (19.3% by GC) was isolated from the fresh fruit of Amorpha fruticosa L. (Fabaceae). Agglomerative clustering and k-means clustering were employed to compare the composition of the oil with the existing literature data, suggesting that the A. fruticosa used in this study represents a new chemotype. The essential oil was evaluated for its antinociceptive activity using the acetic acid-induced writhing test in rats at doses of 400, 200, and 100 mg/kg. All tested doses reduced the number of writhes induced by the intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid. The 400 mg/kg dose of the oil demonstrated a 54.4% inhibition, which was statistically different from the positive control, aspirin, which showed 90.2% inhibition at a dose of 200 mg/kg. Since the injection of acetic acid produces the release of prostaglandins, such as PGE2α and PGF2α, as well as sympathetic nervous system mediators in peritoneal fluids, the results suggest that the inhibition of prostaglandin release might represent one of the possible mechanisms of action exerted by the oil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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16 pages, 2122 KiB  
Article
Assessing a “Least-Concern” Red List Tree Species from Madagascar Used in Traditional Medicine: Morella spathulata (Myricaceae) Phyto-Compounds and Anti-Inflammatory Properties
by Annachiara Fioccardi, Dario Donno, Zoarilala Rinah Razafindrakoto, Nantenaina Tombozara, Sylvia Henintsoa, Elyna Mahitasoa, Valeria Torti, Marcellin Solofoniaina, Lorenzo Rosso, Giovanni Gamba, Charles Andrianjara, David Ramanitrahasimbola and Gabriele Loris Beccaro
Plants 2024, 13(20), 2899; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13202899 - 17 Oct 2024
Viewed by 778
Abstract
Morella spathulata (Myricaceae family) is a common plant from Madagascar and is present on the IUCN Red List of threatened species classified at the ’least concern’ level, used by the local population to treat numerous illnesses and pain. Despite its frequent use, comprehensive [...] Read more.
Morella spathulata (Myricaceae family) is a common plant from Madagascar and is present on the IUCN Red List of threatened species classified at the ’least concern’ level, used by the local population to treat numerous illnesses and pain. Despite its frequent use, comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological research on the species is limited. This study evaluated the antioxidant, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as the toxicity of methanol extracts from the leaves (MS_L) and bark (MS_B) of M. spathulata. The research involved the analysis of nutritional traits such as sugars, organic acids, vitamin C, polyphenolic content (TPC) and the main phytochemicals by HPLC analysis. Antioxidant capacity was assessed through DPPH and FRAP assays. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated using acetic acid-induced writhing and carrageenan-induced paw oedema tests in mice. The results showed a high content of phenolic and bioactive components in the leaf and bark extracts, associated with antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. The interaction of key compounds such as ferulic acid and ellagic acid with proteins involved in pH regulation and immune modulation provides clues to the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects. However, conservation efforts are crucial due to habitat loss and illegal logging, and further studies are needed to fully explore the plant’s therapeutic potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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13 pages, 956 KiB  
Article
Pharmacological Potential and Electrochemical Characteristics of Typha angustifolia Pollen
by Janielle Mari S. Abadilla, Bor-Yann Chen, Mike Anthony D. Ganzon, Alvin R. Caparanga, Kristopher Ray S. Pamintuan, Lemmuel L. Tayo, Chung-Chuan Hsueh, Cheng-Yang Hsieh, Ling-Ling Yang and Po-Wei Tsai
Plants 2024, 13(20), 2857; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13202857 - 12 Oct 2024
Viewed by 887
Abstract
Typha angustifolia L. (TA) pollen has been utilized as a traditional Chinese medicine for treating various internal and external traumas. Moreover, bioactive compounds possess diverse pharmacological activities. This study aims to evaluate the antiviral properties of TA based on its ability to generate [...] Read more.
Typha angustifolia L. (TA) pollen has been utilized as a traditional Chinese medicine for treating various internal and external traumas. Moreover, bioactive compounds possess diverse pharmacological activities. This study aims to evaluate the antiviral properties of TA based on its ability to generate bioenergy, capable of inhibiting viruses. TA pollens were extracted using water and ethanol solvents. These extracts were utilized to identify the phytochemical contents and correlate with the antioxidant activity via 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. HPLC analysis was conducted to identify its electron-shuttling compositions. The bioenergy-generating characteristics were determined via microbial fuel cells. The water extract (TA-W) showed higher antioxidant activity due to a higher phenolic and flavonoid content compared to the ethanol extract (TA-E). Quercetin-3-O-(2G-α-L-rhamnosyl)-rutinoside, quercetin-3-O-neohesperidoside, and quercetin are the electron shuttles (ES) identified out of the 11 compounds. TA obtained a 1.39 ± 0.10 amplification factor of power generation that indicates potential bioenergy-generating and associated antiviral characteristic properties. The findings may provide a foundation for developing antiviral medications specifically designed to target virus-related diseases, while minimizing the risk of drug toxicity and reducing the costs of drug development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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23 pages, 1227 KiB  
Article
Synergistic Phytochemical and Pharmacological Actions of Hair RiseTM Microemulsion: A Novel Herbal Formulation for Androgenetic Alopecia and Hair Growth Stimulation
by Anurak Muangsanguan, Warintorn Ruksiriwanich, Pichchapa Linsaenkart, Pensak Jantrawut, Pornchai Rachtanapun, Kittisak Jantanasakulwong, Sarana Rose Sommano, Korawan Sringarm, Chaiwat Arjin, Mathukorn Sainakham and Juan M. Castagnini
Plants 2024, 13(19), 2802; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13192802 - 6 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1328
Abstract
Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) is a genetic condition characterized by an excessive response to androgens, leading to hairline regression in men and hair thinning at the vertex in women, which can negatively impact self-esteem. Conventional synthetic treatments for AGA are often limited by their [...] Read more.
Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) is a genetic condition characterized by an excessive response to androgens, leading to hairline regression in men and hair thinning at the vertex in women, which can negatively impact self-esteem. Conventional synthetic treatments for AGA are often limited by their side effects. In contrast, Thai medicinal plants offer a promising alternative with fewer adverse effects. This study investigates the synergistic phytochemical and pharmacological effects of a novel Hair RiseTM microemulsion, formulated with bioactive extracts from rice bran (Oryza sativa), shallot bulb (Allium ascalonicum), licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), and corn kernels (Zea mays), for the treatment of hair loss. The microemulsion, in concentrations of 50%, 75%, and 100% (v/v), significantly enhanced the proliferation of human hair follicle dermal papilla cells (HFDPCs) compared to minoxidil. Additionally, it upregulated critical hair growth signaling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin (CTNNB1), Sonic Hedgehog (SHH, SMO, GLI1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), surpassing standard controls such as minoxidil and purmorphamine. The microemulsion also demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties by reducing nitric oxide production and oxidative stress, factors that contribute to inflammation and follicular damage in AGA. Furthermore, Hair RiseTM inhibited 5α-reductase (types 1–3), a key enzyme involved in androgen metabolism, in both human prostate cancer cells (DU-145) and HFDPCs. These findings suggest that Hair RiseTM microemulsion presents a promising natural therapy for promoting hair growth and reducing hair loss via multiple synergistic mechanisms, offering a potent, plant-based alternative to synthetic treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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21 pages, 1411 KiB  
Article
Effects of Micronutrients on the Growth and Phytochemical Composition of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) in the Field and Greenhouse (Hydroponics and Soil Culture)
by Hamid Aghamirzaei, Hasan Mumivand, Abdollah Ehtesham Nia, Mohamad Reza Raji, Alfred Maroyi and Filippo Maggi
Plants 2024, 13(17), 2498; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13172498 - 6 Sep 2024
Viewed by 764
Abstract
The current research was conducted to compare the growth, yield, and phytochemical composition of basil (Ocimum basilicum) in the open field and the soil and hydroponic cultivation in a greenhouse. Furthermore, the effect of foliar spraying of micronutrients on this crop [...] Read more.
The current research was conducted to compare the growth, yield, and phytochemical composition of basil (Ocimum basilicum) in the open field and the soil and hydroponic cultivation in a greenhouse. Furthermore, the effect of foliar spraying of micronutrients on this crop was also evaluated. In each of the cultivation systems, foliar spraying of one micronutrient, either iron sulfate (Fe), zinc sulfate (Zn), copper sulfate (Cu), manganese sulfate (Mn), or boric acid (B), at a concentration of 0.1% was applied in a randomized complete block design. Plants grown in the hydroponic system had higher yield and biomass. The concentration of the elements K, Ca, Mg, N, P, Mn, Fe, B, and Zn in the leaves of hydroponic plants was higher. Contrarily, plants cultivated in the field showed higher stem dry weight, essential oil content, phenolic and flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity. The level of methyl chavicol was higher in the hydroponic culture, but the level of 1,8-cineole was much lower in this cropping system. Foliar spraying of Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, or B significantly increased leaf dry weight and anthocyanin content. In field conditions, the highest levels of phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity were observed with Zn or Mn application. In the hydroponic system, foliar spraying of Zn or B led to the highest antioxidant capacity, and total phenolic and flavonoid contents. Overall, the basil plants cultivated in the field showed higher bioactive ingredients. However, the essential oil of plants cultivated in the hydroponic system had a higher economic value due to its higher percentage of methyl chavicol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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28 pages, 5922 KiB  
Article
Pharmacognostic Evaluation, Chemical Characterization, and Antibacterial Activity of Bassia indica (Wight) A.J. Scott
by Fayyaz Anjum, Saad Touqeer, Muhammad Younus Khan, QurratUlAin Jamil, Ayesha Rida, Jafir Hussain Shirazi, Syeda Abida Ejaz, Hafiz Muhammad Attaullah, Ghulam Sarwar, Zaeem Hayat Khan, Muhammad Asif Wazir, Barizah Malik, Mohammed Aufy and Shahid Muhammad Iqbal
Plants 2024, 13(13), 1753; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13131753 - 25 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1759
Abstract
Bassia indica (Wight) A.J. Scott is an Indian origin plant with documented medicinal and nutritional value, but has not been fully characterized yet. The present study was designed to establish pharmacognostic standards for the proper identification of the B. indica plant and its [...] Read more.
Bassia indica (Wight) A.J. Scott is an Indian origin plant with documented medicinal and nutritional value, but has not been fully characterized yet. The present study was designed to establish pharmacognostic standards for the proper identification of the B. indica plant and its chemical characterization. The plant was standardized with World Health Organization (WHO) standardization tools and chemically characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis. Antibacterial potential was assessed by the zone of inhibition and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and molecular docking studies were also performed. Pharmacognostic evaluation established the macroscopic and microscopic parameters for the identification of whole plant and its powder. Physicochemical parameters were also set forth while quantitative phytochemical analysis showed that the ethyl acetate fraction had the highest quantity of phenols, flavonoids, and tannins. FTIR analysis showed several functional groups such as phenols, alkanes, and alcohols while 55 phytochemicals were identified in the GC-MS analysis of the crude fraction. The crude extract and other fractions showed marked antibacterial activity, while the ethyl acetate fraction showed the least MIC (1.95–31.25 mg/mL). Phytochemicals identified in the GC-MS showed good molecular docking interactions against the DNA gyrase subunit B of bacteria with binding energies ranging from −4.2 to −9.4 kcal/mol. The current study describes the pharmacognostic characterization and phytochemical profiling of B. indica and provides scientific evidence to support its use in infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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27 pages, 6382 KiB  
Article
Phytochemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of Barleria albostellata C.B. Clarke Leaf and Stem Extracts
by Serisha Gangaram, Yougasphree Naidoo, Yaser Hassan Dewir, Moganavelli Singh, Johnson Lin and Hosakatte Niranjana Murthy
Plants 2023, 12(13), 2396; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12132396 - 21 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2777
Abstract
Barleria albostellata (Acanthaceae) is a shrub located in South Africa and is relatively understudied. However, plants within this genus are well known for their medicinal and ethnopharmacological properties. This study aimed to characterise the phytochemical compounds and antibacterial efficacies of B. albostellata [...] Read more.
Barleria albostellata (Acanthaceae) is a shrub located in South Africa and is relatively understudied. However, plants within this genus are well known for their medicinal and ethnopharmacological properties. This study aimed to characterise the phytochemical compounds and antibacterial efficacies of B. albostellata. Phytochemical analysis, fluorescence microscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis were performed to determine the composition of compounds that may be of medicinal importance. Crude leaf and stem extracts (hexane, chloroform and methanol) were subjected to an antibacterial analysis against several pathogenic microorganisms. The qualitative phytochemical screening of leaf and stem extracts revealed the presence various compounds. Fluorescence microscopy qualitatively assessed the leaf and stem powdered material, which displayed various colours under bright and UV light. GC-MS chromatograms represents 10–108 peaks of various compounds detected in the leaf and stem crude extracts. Major pharmacologically active compounds found in the extracts were alpha-amyrin, flavone, phenol, phytol, phytol acetate, squalene and stigmasterol. Crude extracts positively inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Significance was established at p < 0.05 for all concentrations and treatments. These results indicate that the leaves and stems of B. albostellata are rich in bioactive compounds, which could be a potential source of antibacterial agents for treating various diseases linked to the pathogenic bacteria studied. Future discoveries from this plant could advance the use of indigenous traditional medicine and provide novel drug leads. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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Review

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17 pages, 643 KiB  
Review
Natural Products as Hepatoprotective Agents—A Comprehensive Review of Clinical Trials
by Piotr Służały, Paweł Paśko and Agnieszka Galanty
Plants 2024, 13(14), 1985; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13141985 - 20 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1213
Abstract
The hepatoprotective effects of natural products have been a significant focus in recent decades due to the growing demand for the help in the treatment of hepatic impairments. This review specifically delves into the findings of clinical trials involving 13 selected natural products, [...] Read more.
The hepatoprotective effects of natural products have been a significant focus in recent decades due to the growing demand for the help in the treatment of hepatic impairments. This review specifically delves into the findings of clinical trials involving 13 selected natural products, namely plants and their derived compounds (e.g., artichoke, berberine, and turmeric), algae (e.g., spirulina), probiotics, and other products like phospholipids and vitamin D. A literature search was performed in the Scopus database, PubMed, and Google Scholar, covering all articles found up to June 2024. Artichoke, berberine, chlorella, chicory, green tea, probiotics, phospholipids, schisandra, silymarin, spirulina, and vitamin D caused a decrease in liver enzymes, while for cinnamon and turmeric such an effect was either not observed or not convincing. The presented results indicate that some natural products might satisfactorily improve hepatic outcomes in NAFLD, NASH, and other liver disorders; however, further studies and metanalyses are needed to clearly demonstrate their effectiveness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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24 pages, 405 KiB  
Review
The Wild Carrot (Daucus carota): A Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review
by Jana Ismail, Wassim N. Shebaby, Joey Daher, Joelle C. Boulos, Robin Taleb, Costantine F. Daher and Mohamad Mroueh
Plants 2024, 13(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010093 - 27 Dec 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3580
Abstract
Daucus carota L., a member of the Apiaceae family, comprises 13 subspecies, with one being cultivated (D. carota L. ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang.) and the remaining being wild. Traditionally, the wild carrot has been recognized for its antilithic, diuretic, carminative, antiseptic, and [...] Read more.
Daucus carota L., a member of the Apiaceae family, comprises 13 subspecies, with one being cultivated (D. carota L. ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang.) and the remaining being wild. Traditionally, the wild carrot has been recognized for its antilithic, diuretic, carminative, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory properties and has been employed in the treatment of urinary calculus, cystitis, gout, prostatitis, and cancer. While extensive literature is available on the phytochemical, pharmacological, and therapeutic evaluations of the cultivated carrot, limited information has been published on the wild carrot. A thorough search was conducted on the phytochemical composition, folk-medicine uses, and pharmacological properties of wild carrot subspecies (Daucus carota L. ssp. carota). Various electronic databases were consulted, and the literature spanning from 1927 to early 2023 was reviewed. Thirteen wild Daucus carota subspecies were analyzed, revealing over 310 compounds, including terpenoids, phenylpropenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, with 40 constituting more than 3% of the composition. This review also highlights the antioxidant, anticancer, antipyretic, analgesic, antibacterial, antifungal, hypolipidemic, and hepato- and gastroprotective properties of wild carrot subspecies. Existing in vitro and in vivo studies support their traditional uses in treating infections, inflammation, and cancer. However, further research on other subspecies is required to confirm additional applications. Well-designed preclinical and clinical trials are still necessary to establish the safety and efficacy of wild Daucus carota for human use. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
26 pages, 2310 KiB  
Review
Medicinal Uses of the Fabaceae Family in Zimbabwe: A Review
by Alfred Maroyi
Plants 2023, 12(6), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12061255 - 10 Mar 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6782
Abstract
The current study is aimed at providing a systematic review of the ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Fabaceae species used as sources of traditional medicinies in Zimbabwe. Fabaceae is one of the well-known plant families of ethnopharmacological importance. Of the approximately 665 [...] Read more.
The current study is aimed at providing a systematic review of the ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Fabaceae species used as sources of traditional medicinies in Zimbabwe. Fabaceae is one of the well-known plant families of ethnopharmacological importance. Of the approximately 665 species of the Fabaceae family occurring in Zimbabwe, about 101 are used for medicinal purposes. Many communities in the country, mainly in peri-urban, rural and marginalized areas with limited access to healthcare facilities, rely on traditional medicines as their primary healthcare. The study reviewed research studies undertaken on Zimbabwe’s Fabaceae species during 1959 to 2022. Information was gathered from literature sourced from Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, books, dissertations, theses and scientific reports. This study showed that 101 species are traditionally used to manage human and animal diseases in Zimbabwe. The genera with the highest number of medicinal uses are Indigofera, Senna, Albizia, Rhynchosia and Vachellia. Species of these genera are used as traditional medicines against 134 medical conditions, mainly gastrointestinal conditions, female reproductive conditions, respiratory conditions and sexually transmitted infections. Shrubs (39.0%), trees (37.0%) and herbs (18.0%) are the primary sources of traditional medicines, while roots (80.2%), leaves (36.6%), bark (27.7%) and fruits (8.9%) are the most widely used plant parts. Many of Zimbabwe’s Fabaceae species used as sources of traditional medicines have been assessed for their phytochemical and pharmacological properties, corroborating their medicinal uses. However, there is a need to unravel the therapeutic potential of the family through further ethnopharmacological research focusing on toxicological studies, in vitro and in vivo models, biochemical assays and pharmacokinetic studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
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