Plants

49 pages, 14633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transmission, Spread, Longevity and Management of Hop Latent Viroid, a Widespread and Destructive Pathogen Affecting Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) Plants in North America

by Zamir K. Punja, Cameron Scott, Heather H. Tso, Jack Munz and Liam Buirs

Plants 2025, 14(5), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050830 - 6 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

Hop latent viroid (HLVd), a 256-nucleotide RNA strand with complementary base-pairing and internal stem loop structures, forms circular or rod-shaped molecules within diseased plants. RT-PCR/RT-qPCR was used to assess HLVd transmission, spread and longevity. The viroid was detected in asymptomatic stock plants and [...] Read more.

Hop latent viroid (HLVd), a 256-nucleotide RNA strand with complementary base-pairing and internal stem loop structures, forms circular or rod-shaped molecules within diseased plants. RT-PCR/RT-qPCR was used to assess HLVd transmission, spread and longevity. The viroid was detected in asymptomatic stock plants and in rooted vegetative cuttings, as well as in recirculated nutrient solution sampled from propagation tables and nozzles. Plant-to-plant spread through root infection in hydroponic cultivation was demonstrated. The viroid survived for 7 days and 4 weeks, respectively, in crushed leaf extracts (sap) or dried leaves/roots at room temperature. Following stem inoculation with infectious sap, HLVd was detected in root tissues within 2–3 weeks and in the foliage within 4–6 weeks. Plants grown under a 12:12 h photoperiod to induce inflorescence development showed more rapid spread of HLVd compared to 24 h lighting. The viroid was subsequently detected in inflorescence tissues, in trichome glands, in dried cannabis flowers and in crude resinous oil extracts. Anthers and pollen from infected male plants and seeds from infected female plants contained HLVd, giving rise to up to 100% infected seedlings. Artificially inoculated tomato and tobacco plants supported viroid replication in roots and leaves. Infected cannabis leaf and root tissues treated with UV-C for 3–5 min or temperatures of 70–90 °C for 30 min contained amplifiable HLVd-RNA. Infectious plant extract treated with 5–10% bleach (0.825% NaOCl) or 1000 ppm hypochlorous acid yielded no RT-PCR bands, suggesting the RNA was degraded. Meristem tip culture from HLVd-infected plants yielded a high frequency of pathogen-free plants, depending on the genotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cannabis sativa: Advances in Biology and Cultivation—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism of N-Acetyl-D-alloisoleucine in Controlling Strawberry Black Root Rot

by Jialu Xu, Jianxiu Hao, Mingmin Zhao, Xiaoyu Zhang, Ruixiang Niu, Yiran Li, Zhen Wang, Shuo Zhang, Sumei Zhao, Siran Li and Hongyou Zhou

Plants 2025, 14(5), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050829 - 6 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 464

Abstract

China is the largest strawberry producer in the world. Strawberry black root rot is a novel disease that occurs in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia. In the present study, the inhibitory effects of Bacillus subtilis S-16 and its fermented form on strawberry black root rot [...] Read more.

China is the largest strawberry producer in the world. Strawberry black root rot is a novel disease that occurs in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia. In the present study, the inhibitory effects of Bacillus subtilis S-16 and its fermented form on strawberry black root rot caused by Fusarium asiaticum were tested. The inhibition rates were 56.31% and 65.95%, respectively. Furthermore, the metabolic substances were analysed using LC-MS/MS. A total of 68 substances were identified, including 18 amino acids, 7 of which have been reported to have pro-growth and antibacterial functions. Among these seven amino acids, N-acetyl-D-alloisoleucine (NAD) had the strongest inhibitory effect on F. asiaticum. In addition, NAD caused the mycelia of F. asiaticum to appear shrivelled and deformed under electron microscopy. Furthermore, the effect of NAD on F. asiaticum was tested. The results indicate that NAD had a better prevention effect when used with hymexazol. Finally, the fungal biomass of F. asiaticum in strawberry roots was measured at different times using two treatment methods: treating plant roots with NAD and a spore suspension of F. asiaticum concurrently and with F. asiaticum alone. The colonisation response of F. asiaticum in terms of the target gene EF-1α when treated with F. asiaticum alone at 72 hpi was significantly higher than that when treated with NAD and a spore suspension of F. asiaticum. The relative expression levels of defence-related genes in strawberry roots treated with NAD at 72 hpi were determined. The genes NPR1 and PDF1 were markedly upregulated compared with other genes, suggesting that the expression of genes related to disease resistance was activated by NAD, resulting in disease resistance in strawberries. Our results provide theoretical support for the biological control of strawberry black root rot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Associated Microorganisms: Exploring Their Beneficial and Harmful Impacts on Plant Production in Response to a Changing Climate)

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17 pages, 6772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modifications in Leaf Anatomical Traits of Coffea spp. Genotypes Induced by Management × Season Interactions

by Larícia Olária Emerick Silva, Rafael Nunes de Almeida, Rodrigo Barbosa Braga Feitoza, Maura Da Cunha and Fábio Luiz Partelli

Plants 2025, 14(5), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050828 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 536

Abstract

Leaf anatomical traits are influenced by environmental and genetic factors; however, studies that investigate the genotype × environment interaction on these traits are scarce. This study hypothesized that (1) the leaf anatomy of Coffea spp. genotypes is varied, and (2) interactions between managements [...] Read more.

Leaf anatomical traits are influenced by environmental and genetic factors; however, studies that investigate the genotype × environment interaction on these traits are scarce. This study hypothesized that (1) the leaf anatomy of Coffea spp. genotypes is varied, and (2) interactions between managements and seasons significantly influence leaf anatomical traits, inducing a clear adaptation to specific environments. Possible modifications of leaf anatomy in Coffea spp. genotypes were investigated under different managements: full-sun monoculture at low-altitude (MLA), full-sun monoculture at high altitude (MHA), and low-altitude agroforestry (AFS), in winter and summer. The genotype influenced all leaf anatomical traits investigated, contributing to 2.3–20.6% of variance. Genotype × environment interactions contributed to 2.3–95.8% of variance to key traits. The effects of genotype × management interactions were more intense than those of genotype × season interactions on traits such as leaf thickness, palisade parenchyma thickness, abaxial epidermis, and polar and equatorial diameter of the stomata. The management AFS was more effective in altering leaf anatomical traits than the altitude differences between MLA and MHA, regardless of the season. These findings provide valuable insights for future research and for the development of strategies to improve the adaptation of coffee plants to changing environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management, Development, and Breeding of Coffea sp. Crop)

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44 pages, 2707 KiB

Open AccessReview

Unveiling the Multifaceted Pharmacological Actions of Indole-3-Carbinol and Diindolylmethane: A Comprehensive Review

by Yadava Srikanth, Dontiboina Harikrishna Reddy, Vinjavarapu Lakshmi Anusha, Naresh Dumala, Matte Kasi Viswanadh, Guntupalli Chakravarthi, Buchi N. Nalluri, Ganesh Yadagiri and Kakarla Ramakrishna

Plants 2025, 14(5), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050827 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Cruciferae family vegetables are remarkably high in phytochemicals such as Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and Diindolylmethane (DIM), which are widely known as nutritional supplements. I3C and DIM have been studied extensively in different types of cancers like breast, prostate, endometrial, colorectal, gallbladder, hepatic, and cervical, [...] Read more.

Cruciferae family vegetables are remarkably high in phytochemicals such as Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and Diindolylmethane (DIM), which are widely known as nutritional supplements. I3C and DIM have been studied extensively in different types of cancers like breast, prostate, endometrial, colorectal, gallbladder, hepatic, and cervical, as well as cancers in other tissues. In this review, we summarized the protective effects of I3C and DIM against cardiovascular, neurological, reproductive, metabolic, bone, respiratory, liver, and immune diseases, infections, and drug- and radiation-induced toxicities. Experimental evidence suggests that I3C and DIM offer protection due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, immunomodulatory, and xenobiotic properties. Apart from the beneficial effects, the present review also discusses the possible toxicities of I3C and DIM that are reported in various preclinical investigations. So far, most of the reports about I3C and DIM protective effects against various diseases are only from preclinical studies; this emphasizes the dire need for large-scale clinical trials on these phytochemicals against human diseases. Further, in-depth research is required to improve the bioavailability of these two phytochemicals to achieve the desirable protective effects. Overall, our review emphasizes that I3C and DIM may become potential drug candidates for combating dreadful human diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Metabolites from Plants as Potential Treatments for Global Diseases)

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13 pages, 6282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Translocation and Photosynthetic Responses in Clones of Kentucky Bluegrass to Heterogeneous Water Supply

by Jia Jiang, Chen Wang, Along Chen, Fuchun Xie and Yajun Chen

Plants 2025, 14(5), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050826 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 407

Abstract

Drought stress is the most common threat to plant growth, while physiological integration can significantly enhance the drought tolerance of clonal plants, making it essential to research the behavior of clones under drought conditions and explore the potential applications of clonal plants. This [...] Read more.

Drought stress is the most common threat to plant growth, while physiological integration can significantly enhance the drought tolerance of clonal plants, making it essential to research the behavior of clones under drought conditions and explore the potential applications of clonal plants. This study applied polyethylene-glycol-6000-induced stress to proximal, middle and distal clonal ramets of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and used an isotope labeling technique to evaluate the water physiological integration and photosynthetic capacity. When the proximal ramet was subjected to drought stress treatment, the decrease in ²H isotopes in the roots from 4 h to 6 h was significantly smaller than the increase in ²H isotopes in their own leaves. Additionally, the reductions in δ²H values of middle and distal ramets roots were 4.14 and 2.6 times greater, respectively, than the increases in their respective leaf δ²H values. The results indicate that under drought stress, water physiological integration was observed among different clonal ramets. In addition, drought stress inhibits the photosynthetic-related indicators in clonal ramets, with varying degrees of response and trends in photosynthetic characteristics among different clonal ramets. The proximal ramet treatment group, treated with polyethylene glycol 6000, was most affected by drought stress, while the distal ramet treatment group was least affected. The proximal ramet treatment group, treated with polyethylene glycol 6000, showed a decrease in water use efficiency after 6 h of drought treatment, while the other groups exhibited some increase. This indicates differences in water utilization and regulation among the different clonal ramets under drought stress. This study holds significant theoretical importance for exploring the characteristics of physiological integration and the photosynthetic mechanisms of Kentucky bluegrass clones under drought stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress Biology of Turfgrass—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 4290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation in Root Morphological Traits and Non-Structural Carbohydrates of Pinus yunnanensis Seedlings Across Different Seedling Orders

by Zixing Pan, Zhuangyue Lu, Sunling Li, Jianzhen Liao, Chiyu Zhou, Lin Chen, Shi Chen, Nianhui Cai, Dexin Wang and Yulan Xu

Plants 2025, 14(5), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050825 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 435

Abstract

Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs), comprising soluble sugars (SS) and starch (ST), are essential for plant growth and development. The distribution of SS and ST concentration across various organs fluctuates throughout time due to the changes in root morphology in plants, ultimately demonstrating multiple strategies [...] Read more.

Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs), comprising soluble sugars (SS) and starch (ST), are essential for plant growth and development. The distribution of SS and ST concentration across various organs fluctuates throughout time due to the changes in root morphology in plants, ultimately demonstrating multiple strategies for adapting to seasonal environmental variations. The purpose of this investigation was to explore the seasonal dynamic patterns of root morphology in Pinus yunnanensis, with particular emphasis on specific root length (SRL), specific root surface area (SRA), root tissue density (RTD), and average diameter (AD). This study also aimed to investigate the seasonal fluctuation patterns of NSC. The SRL, SRA, RTD, and AD in both first-order and second-order seedlings had analogous fluctuation patterns from March to December. Although the SRL, SRA, RTD, and AD of third-order seedlings exhibited minor differences from the preceding orders, the overall variance patterns corresponded with those of the first two seedling groups. Consequently, the seasonal fluctuations in SS, ST, and NSC levels in various seedling orders exhibited patterns similar to root morphological characteristics. The SRL, SRA, and AD of three seedling orders exhibited a significant correlation with SS, ST, and NSC, confirming the link between NSC concentration and root morphology. The responses of SS, ST, and NSC in various organs of P. yunnanensis seedlings to root morphological characteristics further substantiated the correlation between the variations in NSC across different organs and root morphological traits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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18 pages, 8193 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Melatonin Alleviates Photosynthetic Injury in Tomato Seedlings Subjected to Salt Stress via OJIP Chlorophyll Fluorescence Kinetics

by Xianjun Chen, Xiaofeng Liu, Yundan Cong, Yao Jiang, Jianwei Zhang, Qin Yang and Huiying Liu

Plants 2025, 14(5), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050824 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 605

Abstract

The tomato is among the crops with the most extensive cultivated area and greatest consumption in our nation; nonetheless, secondary salinization of facility soil significantly hinders the sustainable growth of facility agriculture. Melatonin (MT), as an innovative plant growth regulator, is essential in [...] Read more.

The tomato is among the crops with the most extensive cultivated area and greatest consumption in our nation; nonetheless, secondary salinization of facility soil significantly hinders the sustainable growth of facility agriculture. Melatonin (MT), as an innovative plant growth regulator, is essential in stress responses. This research used a hydroponic setup to replicate saline stress conditions. Different endogenous levels of melatonin (MT) were established by foliar spraying of 100 μmol·L⁻¹ MT, the MT synthesis inhibitor p-CPA (100 μmol·L⁻¹), and a combination of p-CPA and MT, to investigate the mechanism by which MT mitigates the effects of salt stress on the photosynthetic efficiency of tomato seedlings. Results indicated that after six days of salt stress, the endogenous MT content in tomato seedlings drastically decreased, with declines in the net photosynthetic rate and photosystem performance indices (PI_total and PI_abs). The OJIP fluorescence curve exhibited distortion, characterized by anomalous K-band and L-band manifestations. Exogenous MT dramatically enhanced the gene (TrpDC, T5H, SNAcT, and AcSNMT) expression of critical enzymes in MT synthesis, therefore boosting the level of endogenous MT. The application of MT enhanced the photosynthetic parameters. MT treatment decreased the fluorescence intensities of the J-phase and I-phase in the OJIP curve under salt stress, attenuated the irregularities in the K-band and L-band performance, and concurrently enhanced quantum yield and energy partitioning ratios. It specifically elevated φP_o, φE_o, and ψ_o, while decreasing φD_o. The therapy enhanced parameters of both the membrane model (ABS/RC, DI_o/RC, ET_o/RC, and TR_o/RC) and leaf model (ABS/CS_m, TR_o/CS_m, ET_o/CS_m, and DI_o/CS_m). Conversely, the injection of exogenous p-CPA exacerbated salt stress-related damage to the photosystem of tomato seedlings and diminished the beneficial effects of MT. The findings suggest that exogenous MT mitigates salt stress-induced photoinhibition by (1) modulating endogenous MT concentrations, (2) augmenting PSII reaction center functionality, (3) safeguarding the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), (4) reinstating PSI redox potential, (5) facilitating photosynthetic electron transport, and (6) optimizing energy absorption and dissipation. As a result, MT markedly enhanced photochemical performance and facilitated development and salt stress resilience in tomato seedlings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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18 pages, 8581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mangrove Against Invasive Snails: Aegiceras corniculatum Shows a Molluscicidal Effect on Exotic Apple Snails (Pomacea canaliculata) in Mangroves

by Xinyan Yang, Hongmei Li, Huizhen Xie, Yanfang Ma, Yuting Yu, Qingping Liu, Junhao Kuang, Miaoying Zhang, Jinling Liu and Benliang Zhao

Plants 2025, 14(5), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050823 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 551

Abstract

Apple snails (Pomacea canaliculata), one of the 100 most serious invasive species in the world, have invaded mangrove wetlands due to their salinity tolerance. We firstly prepared a plant molluscicide against apple snails based on the mangrove Aegiceras corniculatum in coastal [...] Read more.

Apple snails (Pomacea canaliculata), one of the 100 most serious invasive species in the world, have invaded mangrove wetlands due to their salinity tolerance. We firstly prepared a plant molluscicide against apple snails based on the mangrove Aegiceras corniculatum in coastal wetland. The effects of four mangrove extracts from A. corniculatum, including ethanol extract (EE), petroleum ether extract (PEE), ethyl acetate extract (EAE), and n-butanol extract (BE), were studied for molluscicidal activity against apple snails in a saline environment. The LC₅₀ values at 48 h of EE, PEE, EAE, and BE were 25 mg/L, 123 mg/L, 170 mg/L, and 14 mg/L, respectively. BE had the highest molluscicidal value (96.7%) against apple snails at 48 h. At 48 h, BE of A. corniculatum leaves significantly decreased the soluble sugar content, soluble protein content, acetylcholinesterase, and glutathione of apple snails to 4.25 mg/g, 29.50 mg/g, 947.1 U/gprot, and 6.22 U/gprot, respectively, compared to those in the control. The increased BE concentration significantly enhanced the malondialdehyde and aspartate aminotransferase contents to 4.18 mmol/gprot and 18.9 U/gprot at 48 h. Furthermore, the damage in the hepatopancreas tissue of apple snails increased, and the cellular structure became necrotic as the concentration of BE from A. corniculatum increased. The content of palmitic acid in BE of A. corniculatum leaves was the highest (10.9%), possibly be a toxic ingredient against apple snails. The n-butanol extract of A. corniculatum leaves showed a potential to control apple snails in the brackish water, and its plantation was beneficial to control the further spread of apple snails in mangrove wetlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Plant Extracts in Pest Control)

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16 pages, 3377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing the Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Cytotoxic Properties of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized from Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Extracts: A Comprehensive Study

by Matshoene V. Motene, Charity Maepa and Muendi T. Sigidi

Plants 2025, 14(5), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050822 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 593

Abstract

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) bulb extracts and evaluation of their antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antioxidant properties were investigated. The crude plant extracts were prepared using distilled water, ethanol, and methanol for a comparison. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized [...] Read more.

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch) bulb extracts and evaluation of their antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antioxidant properties were investigated. The crude plant extracts were prepared using distilled water, ethanol, and methanol for a comparison. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized and characterized via UV–Visible spectroscopy (UV–VIS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The formation of silver nanoparticles was confirmed using the UV–VIS spectra at 550 nm. The TEM confirmed the nanoparticle morphology as a mixed dispersed sphere, oval, and triangular shapes with a size range of 7.8 nm to 31.3 nm. The secondary metabolites were detected using TLC, DPPH, and LC-MS. Antimicrobial activity was assessed based on agar-well diffusion; cytotoxicity was examined through MTS assays. Various phytochemical constituents were detected through TLC and LC-MS. The crude extracts and methanol-extract-capped AgNP were able to scavenge free radicals, as shown by the developments of inhibitory bands on the TLC plate. The agar well diffusion test revealed that the AgNP capped methanol extract had potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative multidrug resistant bacteria in comparison with penicillin and neomycin, with inhibition zones ranging between 10 mm and 14 mm for the methanol-extract-capped AgNP. The in vitro MTS assay revealed that methanol crude extracts and methanol-extract-capped AgNP had a less cytotoxic effect on the HEK293 cells in comparison with untreated cells (control). We therefore conclude that methanol was the best reducing solvent with the best overall nanoparticle morphology and performance in antimicrobial and cytotoxicity, in comparison to ethanol and distilled water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Antidiabetic, and Anticancer Activities of Medicinal Plants)

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40 pages, 4884 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Mechanical Injury on Volatile Emission Rate and Composition in 45 Subtropical Woody Broad-Leaved Storage and Non-Storage Emitters

by Yali Yuan, Yimiao Mao, Hao Yuan, Ming Guo, Guomo Zhou, Ülo Niinemets and Zhihong Sun

Plants 2025, 14(5), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050821 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 434

Abstract

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) significantly impact air quality and climate. Mechanical injury is a common stressor affecting plants in both natural and urban environments, and it has potentially large influences on BVOC emissions. However, the interspecific variability in wounding-induced BVOC emissions remains [...] Read more.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) significantly impact air quality and climate. Mechanical injury is a common stressor affecting plants in both natural and urban environments, and it has potentially large influences on BVOC emissions. However, the interspecific variability in wounding-induced BVOC emissions remains poorly understood, particularly for subtropical trees and shrubs. In this study, we investigated the effects of controlled mechanical injury on isoprenoid and aromatic compound emissions in a taxonomically diverse set of 45 subtropical broad-leaved woody species, 26 species without and in 19 species with BVOC storage structures (oil glands, resin ducts and glandular trichomes for volatile compound storage). Emissions of light-weight non-stored isoprene and monoterpenes and aromatic compounds in non-storage species showed moderate and variable emission increases after mechanical injury, likely reflecting the wounding impacts on leaf physiology. In storage species, mechanical injury triggered a substantial release of monoterpenes and aromatic compounds due to the rupture of storage structures. Across species, the proportion of monoterpenes in total emissions increased from 40.9% to 85.4% after mechanical injury, with 32.2% of this increase attributed to newly released compounds not detected in emissions from intact leaves. Sesquiterpene emissions, in contrast, were generally low and decreased after mechanical injury. Furthermore, wounding responses varied among plant functional groups, with evergreen species and those adapted to high temperatures and shade exhibiting stronger damage-induced BVOC emissions than deciduous species and those adapted to dry or cold environments. These findings suggest that mechanical disturbances such as pruning can significantly enhance BVOC emissions in subtropical urban forests and should be considered when modeling BVOC fluxes in both natural and managed ecosystems. Further research is needed to elucidate the relationship between storage structure characteristics and BVOC emissions, as well as their broader ecological and atmospheric implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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14 pages, 2384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Cytoplasmic Sterility on Roots and Yield of Nitrogen Sources in Rice

by Rong Liu, Qin Wang, Xiyuan Wang, Shengmin Yan, Guotao Yang, Peng Ma and Yungao Hu

Plants 2025, 14(5), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050820 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 502

Abstract

Rice is an important food crop, acting as the staple food for more than 50% of the global population. We selected seedlings (two sterile male lines: WA803A and JW803A) that had different cytoplasmic but the same nuclear composition and were heterogeneous. The maintainer [...] Read more.

Rice is an important food crop, acting as the staple food for more than 50% of the global population. We selected seedlings (two sterile male lines: WA803A and JW803A) that had different cytoplasmic but the same nuclear composition and were heterogeneous. The maintainer line 803B was also used. We aimed to study their nitrogen uptake rate in different concentrations of NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻ and explore the differences in nitrogen uptake efficiency between different cytoplasmic genes. The results showed a significant difference in the nitrogen uptake rate for different seedlings. With ammonium nutrition, the nitrogen uptake efficiency of the JW cytoplasm was significantly higher than that of the WA cytoplasm. In low concentrations of ammonium nitrogen, the JW cytoplasm had an additive effect to the nuclear gene regulation of ammonium uptake. The JW cytoplasm’s ammonium nitrogen absorption effect on nuclear gene regulation was higher than that of the WA cytoplasm. The effect of the WA and JW cytoplasms on the nitrate uptake rate was not significant, and the nuclear gene regulation of both cytoplasms was reduced by absorbing nitrate. Under nitrogen deficiency conditions, the material output and conversion rate of the JW-type cytoplasmic hybrid rice combination was relatively high, significantly higher than those of other cytoplasmic combinations. Under medium nitrogen conditions, the material output and conversion rate of the (N2) W-type hybrid rice combination were significantly higher than those of the other cytoplasmic combinations. The yield of JW-type rice first increased and then decreased with the increase in the nitrogen application rate and was highest, 8195.55 kg/hm², under the N2 treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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22 pages, 1379 KiB

Open AccessReview

Genetic and Genomic Tools in Breeding for Resistance to Fusarium Stalk Rot in Maize (Zea mays L.)

by Desmond Darko Asiedu and Thomas Miedaner

Plants 2025, 14(5), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050819 - 5 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1105

Abstract

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the world’s most productive cereal crop, yet it is threatened by several diseases. Among them, Fusarium stalk rot (FSR) causes an average global yield loss of 4.5%. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, and moniliformin persist in grain and [...] Read more.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the world’s most productive cereal crop, yet it is threatened by several diseases. Among them, Fusarium stalk rot (FSR) causes an average global yield loss of 4.5%. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, and moniliformin persist in grain and silage after harvest and pose a risk to human and animal health. This review describes the lifestyle of the fungal pathogens that cause FSR, studies how to optimize resistance evaluation, identifies quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and candidate genes (CGs), and, finally, considers the methods for selecting FSR resistance, especially through genomic selection. To screen maize genotypes for FSR resistance, several artificial inoculation methods have been employed in most studies, including toothpick insertion, ball-bearing pellets, root infection, and the oat kernel method. However, these methods have several limitations in effectively inducing FSR disease infection. Needle injection of inoculum into the stem is recommended, especially when combined with a quantitative or percentage scale because it effectively phenotypes maize populations for FSR resistance. Nine studies with larger populations (≥150 progenies) investigated the genetic architecture of FSR resistance. The inheritance is clearly quantitative. Four major QTLs and several minor QTLs are reported to confer resistance to FSR pathogens, and a few CGs have been identified. Genomic selection is recommended as an effective method for developing routinely FSR-resistant maize, but only two studies have explored this area. An omics analysis (proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics) of the expression of candidate genes should validate their role in FSR resistance, and their use might accelerate selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Disease Resistance Breeding of Field Crops)

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32 pages, 1780 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

South African Medicinal Plants Traditionally Used for Wound Treatment: An Ethnobotanical Systematic Review

by Farzana Fisher (née Rahiman), Charlene Africa, Jeremy Klaasen and Randall Fisher

Plants 2025, 14(5), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050818 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1132

Abstract

Microbial contamination of chronic wounds complicates their treatment. Traditional knowledge systems and the diversity of indigenous medicinal plants create a haven for traditional medicine practices in South Africa (SA). This systematic review aims to present a comprehensive ethnobotanical report of traditional medicines used [...] Read more.

Microbial contamination of chronic wounds complicates their treatment. Traditional knowledge systems and the diversity of indigenous medicinal plants create a haven for traditional medicine practices in South Africa (SA). This systematic review aims to present a comprehensive ethnobotanical report of traditional medicines used in the documented empirical wound healing studies in SA. Google Scholar, PubMed, Medline EBSCOhost, Science Direct, and Scopus were sourced using the keywords/terminologies “South Africa”, “medicinal plants”, “traditional medicine” “indigenous”, “skin”, “wound”, “ethnobotany”, “survey”, “interview”, and “treatment” in different combinations. Relevant and unpublished records were retrieved from the Global Electronic Thesis Database. The searching process identified 32,419 records, of which 4005 studies were screened. Following the removal of 1795 duplicates, the remaining 2210 sources were screened by title and abstract, and 133 full-text reports were accessed and evaluated. Plants traditionally used for wound-healing purposes comprised 222 species belonging to 71 families, namely Asteraceae (predominantly the Helichrysum species), Asphodelaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. Plant organs used for medicinal remedies included leaves, roots, and bark prepared as poultices, infusions, decoctions, gel/ointments/lotions, and pastes. This review provides a valuable reference for future phytochemical and pharmacological studies and highlights the need for further ethnobotanical research to treat wounds in SA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Resources and Ethnobotany in Aromatic and Medicinal Plants)

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17 pages, 5535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gene Expression Dynamics of Sugar Metabolism and Accumulation During Fruit Ripening in Camellia drupifera

by Xue Sun, Muhammad Zeeshan Ul Haq, Ya Liu, Dongmei Yang, Huageng Yang and Yougen Wu

Plants 2025, 14(5), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050817 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 665

Abstract

Camellia drupifera, a valuable woody oil crop, holds significant ecological, economic, and medicinal importance. Its seed maturation involves intricate physiological changes, particularly the interplay between oil biosynthesis and sugar metabolism. This study investigates sugar accumulation and the expression dynamics of sugar metabolism-related [...] Read more.

Camellia drupifera, a valuable woody oil crop, holds significant ecological, economic, and medicinal importance. Its seed maturation involves intricate physiological changes, particularly the interplay between oil biosynthesis and sugar metabolism. This study investigates sugar accumulation and the expression dynamics of sugar metabolism-related unigenes during three key developmental stages of C. drupifera fruit: the nutrient synthesis stage (NS), fat accumulation stage (FA), and maturation stage (MS). The findings reveal distinct differences in sugar content and regulatory mechanisms across the stages. The NS stage emerges as a critical period for sugar metabolism, characterized by peak levels of soluble sugars and fructose alongside a significantly elevated expression of sugar metabolism-related unigenes. The significant correlation between sucrose content and gene expression suggests a crucial role of carbohydrates in fruit maturation. Transcriptomic analysis identified key differentially expressed unigenes (DEGs) in sugar metabolism pathways, which qRT-PCR further validated. These results offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms regulating sugar metabolism during C. drupifera fruit development. At the same time, it provides a theoretical basis for the genetic improvement and effective utilization of other oil crops, supporting their broader agricultural and industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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21 pages, 2109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maximizing Cannabinoid and Polyphenol Extraction from Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L. cv. Helena) Areal Parts: A Comparative Study of Ultrasound-Assisted and Conventional Methods at Two Harvest Stages

by Zorica Lazarević, Anamarija Koren, Tijana Zeremski, Aleksandra Mišan, Nataša Nastić, Nadežda Stojanov and Senka Vidović

Plants 2025, 14(5), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050816 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 657

Abstract

In this work, two extraction techniques, conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) techniques, were employed for the extraction of natural bioactive compounds (NBCs) from the areal parts of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L. cv. Helena) at two harvesting stages: (i) the beginning of [...] Read more.

In this work, two extraction techniques, conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) techniques, were employed for the extraction of natural bioactive compounds (NBCs) from the areal parts of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L. cv. Helena) at two harvesting stages: (i) the beginning of flowering and (ii) the full flowering of the hemp plants. In the conventional extraction, the effect of different extraction solvents on the extraction yield and the content of NBCs was examined. The extraction temperature, extraction time, and ultrasonic power were chosen for the process parameters in UAE. The highest value of the investigated responses in UAE-obtained extracts was higher compared to extract obtained with conventional extraction techniques when the same solvent was used (50% ethanol): extraction yield (17.54 compared to 15.28%), content of total phenols and total flavonoids (1.7795 compared to 1.0476 mg GAE/mL and 0.6749 compared to 0.3564 mg CE/mL, respectively) and cannabidiol (0.8752 compared to 0.4310 mg/mL). Comparing the plant material in different developmental stages, it can be concluded that hemp aerial parts at the beginning of the flowering stage represent a good source of the phenolic compound with sinapic acid and apigenin being dominant, while hemp aerial parts in the full flowering stage represent a good source of cannabinoids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

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19 pages, 8522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Distribution and Priority Protection of Endangered Species Cycas balansae

by Huayong Zhang, Yanxia Zhou, Shijia Zhang, Zhongyu Wang and Zhao Liu

Plants 2025, 14(5), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050815 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 556

Abstract

As an endangered species, the habitat of Cycas balansae (C. balansae) is subject to a variety of impacts, including climate change and human activities, and exploring its adaptive distribution and conservation areas under such conditions is crucial to protecting the ecological [...] Read more.

As an endangered species, the habitat of Cycas balansae (C. balansae) is subject to a variety of impacts, including climate change and human activities, and exploring its adaptive distribution and conservation areas under such conditions is crucial to protecting the ecological security of endangered species. In this study, we used the MaxEnt model and Marxan v4.0.6 to systematically evaluate the adaptive distribution and priority protection areas of the endangered species C. balansae. The results showed that the endangered species C. balansae is concentrated in Xishuangbanna and its surrounding zones in the southern Yunnan Province. The main factors affecting the distribution of C. balansae were temperature seasonality, mean temperature of the coldest quarter, isothermality, and precipitation of the warmest quarter, among which temperature was the dominant factor. Under different climate scenarios in the future, the adaptive distribution area of C. balansae showed a slight decrease, and the adaptive distribution showed a northward migration trend. The future climate distribution pattern is closely related to temperature seasonality and the mean temperature of the coldest quarter. In addition, the influence of anthropogenic disturbances on the distribution of C. balansae cannot be ignored. Currently, there is a large range of conservation vacancies for C. balansae, and it is recommended that Simao City be used as a priority conservation area. This study provides new insights for determining the priority conservation areas and conservation strategies for the endangered species C. balansae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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22 pages, 2700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Characterization of Lipid Droplet-Associated Protein (LDAP) Isoforms from Tung Tree (Vernicia fordii)

by Alyssa C. Clews, Payton S. Whitehead, Lingling Zhang, Shiyou Lü, Jay M. Shockey, Kent D. Chapman, John M. Dyer, Yang Xu and Robert T. Mullen

Plants 2025, 14(5), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050814 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 541

Abstract

Lipid droplets (LDs) are cytoplasmic organelles responsible primarily for the storage of neutral lipids, such as triacyclglycerols (TAGs). Derived from the endoplasmic reticulum bilayer, LDs are composed of a hydrophobic lipid core encased by a phospholipid monolayer and surface-associated proteins. To date, only [...] Read more.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are cytoplasmic organelles responsible primarily for the storage of neutral lipids, such as triacyclglycerols (TAGs). Derived from the endoplasmic reticulum bilayer, LDs are composed of a hydrophobic lipid core encased by a phospholipid monolayer and surface-associated proteins. To date, only a relatively few LD ‘coat’ proteins in plants have been identified and characterized, most of which come from studies of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. To expand our knowledge of the plant LD proteome, the LD-associated protein (LDAP) family from the tung tree (Vernicia fordii), whose seeds are rich in a commercially valuable TAG containing the conjugated fatty acid α-eleostearic acid (C18:3Δ^{9cis,11trans,13trans} [α-ESA]), was identified and characterized. Based on the tung tree transcriptome, three LDAP isoforms (VfLDAP1-3) were elucidated and the encoded proteins distinctly clustered into three clades along with their respective isoforms from other angiosperm species. Ectopic expression of the VfLDAPs in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves revealed that they localized specifically to LDs and influenced LD numbers and sizes, as well as increasing TAG content and altering TAG fatty acid composition. Interestingly, in a partially reconstructed TAG-ESA biosynthetic pathway, the co-expression of VfLDAP3 and, to a lesser degree, VfLDAP2, significantly increased the content of α-ESA stored within the LDs. These results suggest that the VfLDAPs can influence the steady-state content and composition of TAG in plant cells and that certain LDAP isoforms may have evolved to more efficiently package TAGs into LDs containing unusual fatty acids, such as α-ESA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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14 pages, 21644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of Pomegranate CAMTA3 in Cold Stress Responses

by Shuangshuang Zhao, Rui Lu, Lijuan Feng, Mengyu Zheng, Han Zhang, Yanlei Yin and Ling Zheng

Plants 2025, 14(5), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050813 - 5 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 506

Abstract

Cold stress is a significant factor limiting plant growth and development. Pomegranate is particularly susceptible to low temperatures. Calmodulin-binding transcriptional activators (CAMTAs) are key regulators of cold stress tolerance in plants. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the CAMTA family [...] Read more.

Cold stress is a significant factor limiting plant growth and development. Pomegranate is particularly susceptible to low temperatures. Calmodulin-binding transcriptional activators (CAMTAs) are key regulators of cold stress tolerance in plants. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the CAMTA family proteins across 12 species, including Punica granatum (pomegranate), using bioinformatic methods. Pomegranate CAMTA3 (PgCAMTA3) was isolated and characterized, and it demonstrated enhanced cold tolerance when expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that the expression of PgCAMTA3 was up-regulated under cold and ABA treatments in pomegranates. Two A. thaliana transgenic lines, OE1 and OE2, which overexpress PgCAMTA3, were generated through genetic transformation. The overexpression of PgCAMTA3 enhanced the cold stress tolerance in transgenic A. thaliana. OE1 and OE2 exhibited higher survival rates under cold stress. Furthermore, enzymatic activity assays revealed enhanced peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in OE lines. These antioxidant enzymatic activities collectively contribute to better cold stress tolerance by providing more effective reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging and cellular protection mechanisms, which was confirmed by lower levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and ROS production. In addition, the overexpression of PgCAMTA3 led to the upregulation of the expression levels of AtCBF2, AtNCED3, and AtWRKY22, which were modulated by CAMTA3. In summary, we report the significant role of PgCAMTA3 in plant cold tolerance. Our findings provide valuable insights into the CAMATA family in plants and offer new perspectives on the molecular mechanisms underlying cold tolerance in pomegranates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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18 pages, 2285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inducing Drought Resilience in Maize Through Encapsulated Bacteria: Physiological and Biochemical Adaptations

by Tiago Lopes, Pedro Costa, Paulo Cardoso, José Almeida e Silva and Etelvina Figueira

Plants 2025, 14(5), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050812 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 456

Abstract

Droughts are projected to become prevalent throughout the 21st century, endangering agricultural productivity and global food security. To address these challenges, novel strategies to enhance water management and augment plant resilience are imperative. Bacterial encapsulation has emerged as a promising approach, offering benefits [...] Read more.

Droughts are projected to become prevalent throughout the 21st century, endangering agricultural productivity and global food security. To address these challenges, novel strategies to enhance water management and augment plant resilience are imperative. Bacterial encapsulation has emerged as a promising approach, offering benefits such as enhanced bacterial survival, soil compatibility, and sustainable plant growth. This study evaluated the osmotolerance of bacteria from arid environments and determined their plant growth-promoting ability in drought conditions. The encapsulation of these bacteria in bio-compatible capsules led to a substantial enhancement in the performance of maize plants under drought stress. Maize plants treated with encapsulated bacteria demonstrated a 35% increase in root biomass and a 28% enhancement in shoot growth compared to untreated controls. Furthermore, significant physiological and biochemical adaptations were observed, including a 45% increase in photosynthetic pigment concentration and higher osmolyte levels, which contributed to improved drought stress tolerance. The findings of this study demonstrate the potential of encapsulated bacteria to enhance maize resilience to drought, thereby supporting robust growth under water-limited conditions. This approach presents a sustainable strategy to improve drought tolerance, and it may reduce irrigation dependency and maintain crop yields in the face of increasing climate uncertainty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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14 pages, 49507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elevated Atmospheric CO₂ Concentrations Reduce Tomato Mosaic Virus Severity in Tomato Plants

by Giovanni Marino, Andrea Carli, Antonio Raschi, Mauro Centritto, Emanuela Noris, Chiara D’Errico and Slavica Matić

Plants 2025, 14(5), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050811 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 590

Abstract

Tomato mosaic disease, caused by tomato mosaic virus (ToMV), was studied under naturally elevated [CO₂] concentrations to simulate the potential impacts of future climate scenarios on the ToMV–tomato pathosystem. Tomato plants infected with ToMV were cultivated under two distinct [CO₂ [...] Read more.

Tomato mosaic disease, caused by tomato mosaic virus (ToMV), was studied under naturally elevated [CO₂] concentrations to simulate the potential impacts of future climate scenarios on the ToMV–tomato pathosystem. Tomato plants infected with ToMV were cultivated under two distinct [CO₂] environments: elevated [CO₂] (naturally enriched to approximately 1000 μmol mol⁻¹) and ambient [CO₂] (ambient atmospheric [CO₂] of 420 μmol mol⁻¹). Key parameters, including phytopathological (disease index, ToMV gene expression), growth-related (plant height, leaf area), and physiological traits (chlorophyll content, flavonoid levels, nitrogen balance index), were monitored to assess the effects of elevated [CO₂]. Elevated [CO₂] significantly reduced the disease index from 2.4 under ambient [CO₂] to 1.7 under elevated [CO₂]. Additionally, viral RNA expression was notably lower in plants grown at elevated [CO₂] compared to those under ambient [CO₂]. While ToMV infection led to reductions in the chlorophyll content and nitrogen balance index and an increase in the flavonoid levels under ambient [CO₂], these physiological effects were largely mitigated under elevated [CO₂]. Infected plants grown at elevated [CO₂] showed values for these parameters that approached those of healthy plants grown under ambient [CO₂]. These findings demonstrate that elevated [CO₂] helps to mitigate the effects of tomato mosaic disease and contribute to understanding how future climate scenarios may influence the tomato–ToMV interaction and other plant–pathogen interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical and Ecological Effects of Diseases on Plants)

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14 pages, 1811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Fertilization on Soil Fertility, Biological Activity, and Maize Yield in the Albic Soil Area of China

by Xingzhu Ma, Yue Zhao, Yu Zheng, Lingli Wang, Yulan Zhang, Yi Sun, Jinghong Ji, Xiaoyu Hao, Shuangquan Liu and Nan Sun

Plants 2025, 14(5), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050810 - 5 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 591

Abstract

Fertilization is a key management practice for maintaining or improving soil fertility and ensuring grain yield in agro-ecosystems. Nevertheless, as a low-yield soil, how fertilization strategies impact the status of albic soil physical and chemical properties, biological activity, and crop yield are poorly [...] Read more.

Fertilization is a key management practice for maintaining or improving soil fertility and ensuring grain yield in agro-ecosystems. Nevertheless, as a low-yield soil, how fertilization strategies impact the status of albic soil physical and chemical properties, biological activity, and crop yield are poorly understood. Through a two-year positioning experiment, the albic soil fertility characteristics (physical, chemical, and biological) and changes in maize yield under different fertilization were studied. Three treatments were established: (1) conventional fertilization (chemical fertilizer) (T1), (2) optimized fertilization 1 (low amount of organic fertilizer + chemical fertilizer) (T2), and (3) optimized fertilization 2 (high amount of organic fertilizer + chemical fertilizer) (T3). The results indicated that, compared with T1, the soil bulk density of T2 and T3 treatments decreased, the average solid phase ratio of soil decreased by 8.2%, and the average liquid and gas phase ratios increased by 7.2% and 10.2%, respectively. The soil organic matter (SOM) and soil organic carbon storage (SOCS) under treatment of optimized fertilization were significantly higher than under T1, with an average increase of 10.1% for SOM and 8.8% for SOCS, respectively. T3 significantly increased the contents of alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium, while different fertilizations had little effect on soil pH. T2 and T3 significantly increased activities of soil urease, sucrase, phosphatase, and catalase, with an average increase of 33.7%, 56.9%, 32.0%, and 6.7%, respectively. The numbers of soil bacteria and actinomycetes under T3 increased significantly by 30.2% and 22.0% compared to T1, while the number of fungi decreased by 6.7%. The total number of soil microorganisms increased significantly by 29.0% of T3, and the proportion of soil bacteria to the total number of microorganisms increased, while the proportion of fungi and actinomycetes decreased. The maize yield of T3 was significantly higher than under other treatments, with an increase of 2368.5 kg/ha compared to T1. Correlation analysis showed that the contents of available nutrients and organic matter, the numbers of soil bacteria and actinomycetes, and the activities of soil urease and phosphatase had the most significant impact on maize yield. The optimized fertilization, which was the organic fertilizer combined with chemical fertilizer, can improve the physical properties of albic soil, increase soil organic matter content, organic carbon storage, available nutrient content, and soil biological activity, also for maize yield. Therefore, the optimized fertilization in albic soil of Northeast China is a promising and important management option for improved soil quality and grain yield. This work provides a theoretical basis and technical reference for efficient fertilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil Fertility Management for Sustainable Crop Production)

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21 pages, 2517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Symbiotic Effectiveness, Rhizosphere Competence and Nodule Occupancy of Chickpea Root Nodule Bacteria from Soils in Kununurra Western Australia and Narrabri New South Wales Australia

by Irene Adu Oparah, Rosalind Deaker, Jade Christopher Hartley, Greg Gemell, Elizabeth Hartley, Muhammad Nouman Sohail and Brent Norman Kaiser

Plants 2025, 14(5), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050809 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 614

Abstract

Root nodule bacterial isolates from field-grown chickpea were evaluated in glasshouse and field experiments based on infectivity, relative symbiotic effectiveness, nodule occupancy, plant yield and survivability in the soil rhizosphere for their use as inoculants to enhance chickpea production in Western Australia. Compared [...] Read more.

Root nodule bacterial isolates from field-grown chickpea were evaluated in glasshouse and field experiments based on infectivity, relative symbiotic effectiveness, nodule occupancy, plant yield and survivability in the soil rhizosphere for their use as inoculants to enhance chickpea production in Western Australia. Compared to the Australian commercial chickpea inoculant strain Mesorhizobium ciceri sv. ciceri CC1192, 10 new strains were ‘fast’ growers, averaging 72 h to grow in culture at 28 °C. The relative symbiotic effectiveness (RSE%) of the new strains in field experiments determined by shoot weight ranged from 77 to 111% in the Desi genotype (var. Kyabra) and 83 to 102% in Kabuli (var. Kimberley Large). Kyabra yielded greater output (2.4–3 t/ha) than Kimberley Large (1.2–1.8 t/ha), with mean 100 seed weights of 23 and 59 g, respectively. The rhizobial strains living in the rhizosphere presented a higher competitive ability for nodule occupancy than those in the bulk soil. Tukey’s multiple comparisons test showed no significant differences between the nodule occupancy ability of the introduced strains (i.e., 3/4, 6/7, N5, N300, K66, K188 and CC1192) in either Kyabra or Kimberley Large (p = 0.7321), but the strain competitiveness with each cultivar differed (p < 0.0001) for some of the test strains. Strains N5, N300, K72 and 6/7 were the top contenders that matched or beat CC1192 in nitrogen fixation traits. These findings show that new rhizobial strains derived from naturalized soil populations exhibited better adaptability to local soil conditions than CC1192. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

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23 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessReview

Unveiling Nature’s Architecture: Geometric Morphometrics as an Analytical Tool in Plant Biology

by Federica Spani, Vittoria Locato and Laura De Gara

Plants 2025, 14(5), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050808 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 744

Abstract

Geometric morphometrics (GMM) is an advanced morphometric method enabling quantitative analysis of shape and size variations in biological structures. Through high-resolution imaging and mathematical algorithms, GMM provides valuable insights into taxonomy, ecology, and evolution, making it increasingly relevant in plant science. This review [...] Read more.

Geometric morphometrics (GMM) is an advanced morphometric method enabling quantitative analysis of shape and size variations in biological structures. Through high-resolution imaging and mathematical algorithms, GMM provides valuable insights into taxonomy, ecology, and evolution, making it increasingly relevant in plant science. This review synthesizes the existing literature and explores methodological details, research questions, and future directions, establishing a strong foundation for further study in plant biology. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a rigorous literature search finally identified 83 studies for review. The review organized data on plant species, organs studied, GMM objectives, and methodological aspects, such as imaging and landmark positioning. Leaf and flower structures emerged as the most frequently analyzed organs, primarily in studies of shape variations. This review assesses the use of GMM in plant sciences, identifying knowledge gaps and inconsistencies, and suggesting areas for future research. By highlighting unaddressed topics and emerging trends, the review aims to guide researchers towards methodological challenges and innovations necessary for advancing the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

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25 pages, 1722 KiB

Open AccessReview

Status on Genetic Resistance to Rice Blast Disease in the Post-Genomic Era

by Rodrigo Pedrozo, Aron Osakina, Yixiao Huang, Camila Primieri Nicolli, Li Wang and Yulin Jia

Plants 2025, 14(5), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050807 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 909

Abstract

Rice blast, caused by Magnaporthe oryzae, is a major threat to global rice production, necessitating the development of resistant cultivars through genetic improvement. Breakthroughs in rice genomics, including the complete genome sequencing of japonica and indica subspecies and the availability of various [...] Read more.

Rice blast, caused by Magnaporthe oryzae, is a major threat to global rice production, necessitating the development of resistant cultivars through genetic improvement. Breakthroughs in rice genomics, including the complete genome sequencing of japonica and indica subspecies and the availability of various sequence-based molecular markers, have greatly advanced the genetic analysis of blast resistance. To date, approximately 122 blast-resistance genes have been identified, with 39 of these genes cloned and molecularly characterized. The application of these findings in marker-assisted selection (MAS) has significantly improved rice breeding, allowing for the efficient integration of multiple resistance genes into elite cultivars, enhancing both the durability and spectrum of resistance. Pangenomic studies, along with AI-driven tools like AlphaFold2, RoseTTAFold, and AlphaFold3, have further accelerated the identification and functional characterization of resistance genes, expediting the breeding process. Future rice blast disease management will depend on leveraging these advanced genomic and computational technologies. Emphasis should be placed on enhancing computational tools for the large-scale screening of resistance genes and utilizing gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 for functional validation and targeted resistance enhancement and deployment. These approaches will be crucial for advancing rice blast resistance, ensuring food security, and promoting agricultural sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Resistance against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens: Mechanisms and Applications)

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28 pages, 7947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Kabuli Chickpea Genotypes for Terminal Drought Tolerance in Tropical Growing Environment

by Megha Subedi, Mani Naiker, Ryan du Preez, Dante L. Adorada and Surya Bhattarai

Plants 2025, 14(5), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050806 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 443

Abstract

Terminal drought is the major constraint for chickpea production, leading to yield losses of up to 90% in tropical environments. Understanding the morphological, phenological, and physiological traits underlying drought tolerance is crucial for developing resilient chickpea genotypes. This study elucidates the drought-tolerant traits [...] Read more.

Terminal drought is the major constraint for chickpea production, leading to yield losses of up to 90% in tropical environments. Understanding the morphological, phenological, and physiological traits underlying drought tolerance is crucial for developing resilient chickpea genotypes. This study elucidates the drought-tolerant traits of eight kabuli chickpea genotypes under a controlled environment using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) lysimeters. Terminal drought was imposed after the flowering stage, and the response was assessed against non-stress (well-watered) treatment. Drought stress significantly impacted gas-exchange parameters, reducing the stomatal conductance (16–35%), chlorophyll content (10–22%), carbon assimilation rate (21–40%) and internal carbon concentration (7–14%). Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated three groups among these eight genotypes. The drought-tolerant group included two genotypes (AVTCPK#6 and AVTCPK#19) with higher water use efficiency (WUE), deep-rooted plants, longer maturity, and seed yield stability under drought stress. In contrast, the drought-susceptible group included two genotypes (AVTCPK#1 and AVTCPK#12) that were early-maturing and low-yielding with poor assimilation rates. The intermediate group included four genotypes (AVTCPK#3, AVTCPK8, AVTCPK#24, and AVTCPK#25) that exhibited medium maturity and medium yield, conferring intermediate tolerance to terminal drought. A significantly strong positive correlation was observed between seed yield and key physiological traits (stomatal conductance (gsw), leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD) and carbon assimilation rate (A_sat)) and morphological traits (plant height, number of pods, and root biomass). Conversely, carbon discrimination (Δ¹³C) and intrinsic WUE (iWUE) showed a strong negative correlation with seed yield, supporting Δ¹³C as a surrogate for WUE and drought tolerance and a trait suitable for the selection of kabuli chickpea genotypes for drought resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural Science and Ornamental Plants)

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28 pages, 892 KiB

Open AccessReview

Unraveling the Mechanistic Basis for Control of Seed Longevity

by Shuya Tan, Jie Cao, Shichun Li and Zhonghai Li

Plants 2025, 14(5), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050805 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 548

Abstract

Seed longevity, which holds paramount importance for agriculture and biodiversity conservation, continues to represent a formidable frontier in plant biology research. While advances have been made in identifying regulatory elements, the precise mechanisms behind seed lifespan determination remain intricate and context-specific. This comprehensive [...] Read more.

Seed longevity, which holds paramount importance for agriculture and biodiversity conservation, continues to represent a formidable frontier in plant biology research. While advances have been made in identifying regulatory elements, the precise mechanisms behind seed lifespan determination remain intricate and context-specific. This comprehensive review compiles extensive findings on seed longevity across plant species, focusing on the genetic and environmental underpinnings. Inter-species differences in seed lifespan are tied to genetic traits, with numerous Seed Longevity-Associated Genes (SLAGs) uncovered. These SLAGs encompass transcription factors and enzymes involved in stress responses, repair pathways, and hormone signaling. Environmental factors, particularly seed developmental conditions, significantly modulate seed longevity. Moreover, this review deliberates on the prospects of genetically engineering seed varieties with augmented longevity by precise manipulation of crucial genetic components, exemplifying the promising trajectory of seed science and its practical applications within agriculture and biodiversity preservation contexts. Collectively, our manuscript offers insights for improving seed performance and resilience in agriculture’s evolving landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

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23 pages, 1782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elemental Screening and Nutritional Strategies of Gypsophile Flora in Sicily

by Antonio J. Mendoza-Fernández, Encarna Merlo, Carmelo M. Musarella, Esteban Salmerón-Sánchez, Fabián Martínez-Hernández, Francisco J. Pérez-García, Giovanni Spampinato and Juan Mota

Plants 2025, 14(5), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050804 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 440

Abstract

Sicily is a Mediterranean island with an exceptional natural heritage, where gypsum outcrops are widespread and associated with an endemic flora. These ecosystems are prioritized by the European Habitats Directive (Mediterranean gypsum steppes, 1520*) in the Mediterranean Basin. Some studies have revealed the [...] Read more.

Sicily is a Mediterranean island with an exceptional natural heritage, where gypsum outcrops are widespread and associated with an endemic flora. These ecosystems are prioritized by the European Habitats Directive (Mediterranean gypsum steppes, 1520*) in the Mediterranean Basin. Some studies have revealed the physiological mechanisms in gypsophile plants, which are important adaptative characteristics of plants that live on gypsum. To identify stress-tolerant strategies, we studied the leaf chemical composition of 14 plant species (gypsum endemics, Mediterranean gypsophiles and widely distributed) from Sicily. The ability to accumulate mineral elements in leaves, especially sulfur (S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), is a widespread strategy for gypsophile plants. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) calculations also indicate bioaccumulation of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and potassium (K) in species with a certain degree of foliar succulence, such as Gypsophila arrostii Guss. subsp. arrostii or Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. subsp. crassifolia (Raf.) Maire, which also accumulates Mg and Sodium (Na). The narrow gypsophile Erysimum metlesicsii Polatschek exhibited the highest BCF value for strontium (Sr). The study of the gypsophile G. arrostii subsp. arrostii growing on limestone substrates indicates that this plant tends to hyperaccumulate nutrients, such as S, that are normally available in gypsum substrates. The remarkable ability of these plants to absorb elements such as sulfur and strontium is important to explain their ecological adaptations but also indicates their potential usefulness in environmental phytoremediation processes. The study of plant communities and flora of gypsum substrates is essential to understand the nutritional adaptations that allow flora to survive in gypsum environments and to support the better preservation of these interesting natural areas in Sicily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

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18 pages, 3658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of CPP Transcription Factor Family in Endangered Plant Phoebe bournei and Its Response to Adversity

by Ronglin Liu, Yizhuo Feng, Qingyan Li, Hua Wu, Shengzhou Guo, Junnan Li, Xiaomin Liu, Yanlin Zhang, Xinghao Tang and Shijiang Cao

Plants 2025, 14(5), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050803 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 468

Abstract

The CPP gene family comprises transcription factor genes containing a conserved CRC domain, which is mainly involved in plant development and evolution. Although CPP genes have been widely studied in many plants, little is known about them in woody plants, especially in the [...] Read more.

The CPP gene family comprises transcription factor genes containing a conserved CRC domain, which is mainly involved in plant development and evolution. Although CPP genes have been widely studied in many plants, little is known about them in woody plants, especially in the endangered species Phoebe bournei (Hemsl.). In the genome of Phoebe bournei, we identified 11 PbCPP genes (PbCPP1-PbCPP11) distributed on four chromosomes, with large differences in the number of amino acids. They encode both acidic and alkaline proteins. A phylogenetic analysis showed that these PbCPP genes can be divided into three subfamilies, A, B, and C, which contain seven, two, and two genes, respectively. Through an interspecific collinearity analysis, we identified homologous PbCPP genes. A promoter cis-acting element analysis revealed that PbCPPs contain a variety of elements that respond to plant hormones, stress signals, and light and play a role in growth and development, and most PbCPP genes (except PbCPP3 and PbCPP8) contain MYB binding site elements that regulate drought-induced stress responses, indicating that they play an important role in plant drought resistance. An expression analysis showed that PbCPP3 and PbCPP4 expression was high in the roots and stems and lower in the leaves, whereas the expression of most of the other genes was low in the roots, stems, and leaves. In addition, six representative PbCPP genes were detected using qRT-PCR. The results show significant differences in the expression of PbCPP genes under abiotic stress conditions (drought, cold, and salt), indicating that they play an important role in stress responses. This study preliminarily verified the role of the PbCPP gene family in different abiotic stress responses, which is of great significance for understanding its mechanism in plant growth and development and stress adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics of Forest Trees—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 3338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Postharvest Treatments on Fruit Quality, Sucrose Metabolism, and Antioxidant Capacity of ‘Newhall’ Navel Oranges During Storage

by Bo Xiong, Linlv Han, Yinghong Ou, Wenjia Wu, Jialu Wang, Junfei Yao, Yisong Li, Siyu Chen, Taimei Deng, Hongzhen Chen, Chenming Wang, Qingqing Ma, Yujing Fan, Yixuan Li and Zhihui Wang

Plants 2025, 14(5), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050802 - 5 Mar 2025

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Abstract

During the post-harvest storage of citrus, the flavor of fruit gradually fade. In this study, we investigated the effects of different treatments—control check (CK), heat treatment (HT), salicylic acid treatment (SA), and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment (1-MCP)—on the quality of ‘Newhall’ navel oranges, particularly focusing [...] Read more.

During the post-harvest storage of citrus, the flavor of fruit gradually fade. In this study, we investigated the effects of different treatments—control check (CK), heat treatment (HT), salicylic acid treatment (SA), and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment (1-MCP)—on the quality of ‘Newhall’ navel oranges, particularly focusing on sucrose metabolism and related gene expression during storage. Combining the experimental data, we compared the three different treatments with CK. The results showed that the oranges subjected to HT had a significantly higher flavonoid content (26.40 μg) and total phenolic content (19.42 μg) than those used for the CK at the late storage stage, and was also the most effective in slowing the decline in sugar, titratable acid and other indexes, followed by SA, with 1-MCP performing poorly. Quantitative results showed that the three treatments contributed to the increase in sucrose content by elevating the expression of the SPS1 and SPS2 genes involved in sucrose synthesis compared to the CK. However, no clear pattern was observed between the genes involved in sucrose catabolism (SUS1 and SUS3) and sucrose content. These results provided a rationale for the selection of post-harvest treatments to extend the storage life and maintain the quality of ‘Newhall’ navel oranges, with broader implications for the citrus industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Techniques for Citrus Cultivation)

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25 pages, 13867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tomato Biostimulation with Nanochitosan–Iodine Complexes: Enhancing Antioxidant Metabolism

by Luz Leticia Rivera-Solís, Hortensia Ortega-Ortiz, Adalberto Benavides-Mendoza, María Liliana Flores-López, Armando Robledo-Olivo and Susana González-Morales

Plants 2025, 14(5), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050801 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 990

Abstract

Biostimulants are currently essential for agriculture as they increase crop productivity and quality sustainably. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of biostimulation on the application of nanochitosan–iodine complexes (nCS-I) on tomato plants. Leaf samples were taken for analysis of [...] Read more.

Biostimulants are currently essential for agriculture as they increase crop productivity and quality sustainably. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of biostimulation on the application of nanochitosan–iodine complexes (nCS-I) on tomato plants. Leaf samples were taken for analysis of total protein content, photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant enzymatic activity, mineral and iodine contents, gene expression, and shelf life in tomato fruit. The catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities increased significantly with the application of nanochitosan (nCS) and nanochitosan–potassium iodate (nCS-KIO₃) and nanochitosan–potassium iodide (nCS-KI) complexes and the iodine salts potassium iodate (KIO₃) and potassium iodide (KI). The total protein content and photosynthetic pigments also increased significantly with the application of the treatments. The mineral and iodine contents did not change with the application of the treatments. Similarly, overexpression of the SOD, GPX, and CAT genes was observed. Finally, in the shelf life test, an increase in the total phenols and antioxidant capacity was observed with the application of the treatments. This study shows that the use of nCS-I complexes can modulate different transcriptional and post-translational processes with possible synergistic effects on the antioxidant metabolism of tomato plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biostimulants in Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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Plants, Volume 14, Issue 5 (March-1 2025) – 199 articles

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