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Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

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A special issue of Biomedicines (ISSN 2227-9059). This special issue belongs to the section "Neurobiology and Clinical Neuroscience".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2024) | Viewed by 14705

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Inés López-Cuenca

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Guest Editor

1. Ramon Castroviejo Institute of Ophthalmologic Research, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2. Health Research Institute of the Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: visual science; neuroscience; optometry; ophthalmology; retina; neurodegeneration; dementia; glaucoma

Dr. Rosa De Hoz

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Guest Editor

1. Ramon Castroviejo Institute of Ophthalmologic Research, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2. Health Research Institute of the Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
3. Department of Immunology, Ophthalmology and ENT, Faculty of Optics and Optometry, Complutense University of Madrid, 28037 Madrid, Spain
Interests: visual science; neuroscience; ophthalmology; retina; neurodegeneration; dementia; glaucoma

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Neurodegenerative diseases affect millions of people worldwide and their incidence is on the rise due to the increasing life expectancy. These diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia, ataxias and glaucoma, encompass a range of conditions that result in progressive neuronal damage and connectivity, affecting mobility, coordination, strength, sensation, and cognition.

These multifactorial neurodegenerative diseases share common molecular and cellular characteristics, such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein misfolding, excitotoxicity and inflammation. Currently, there is no definitive therapeutic approach to cure or halt the progression of these diseases, so research into early detection and early stages, as well as new therapeutic approaches, are of particular interest.

Animal models that reproduce the characteristics of the different pathologies, cell lines generated from patients' pluripotent stem cells, the generation of organoids, as well as biomarker studies (retinal and functional ophthalmological changes, protein levels in different fluids or functional and structural tests) in patients affected by the disease or even in subjects with a high genetic risk of developing a neurodegenerative disease constitute a wide field of research.

This Special Issue, edited by Dr. López-Cuenca and Dr. De Hoz, will focus on the latest advances in research on neurodegenerative diseases, including basic, translational and clinical sciences, with the aim of expanding knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms and therapeutic perspective of these diseases.

Dr. Inés López-Cuenca
Dr. Rosa De Hoz
Guest Editors

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Keywords

neurodegeneration
neuroprotection
dementia
Parkinson’s

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Influencing the Total Functional Capacity Score as a Critical Endpoint in Huntington’s Disease Research

by Jannis Achenbach, Benjamin Stodt and Carsten Saft

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3336; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123336 - 17 Dec 2023

Viewed by 947

Abstract

Background: The Total Functional Capacity (TFC) score is commonly used in Huntington’s disease (HD) research. The classification separates each disease stage (1–5), e.g., as an inclusion criterion or endpoint in clinical trials accepted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In addition to the quantification of age- and CAG-repeat-dependent effects as well as interacting effects of both on the TFC, we aimed to investigate factors influencing the TFC, such as neuropsychiatric, educational, and cognitive disease burden using data from the largest HD observational study to date. In addition, we analyzed data from pre-manifest stages to investigate the influence of the above-mentioned factors on the TFC in that stage. Methods: A moderated regression analysis was conducted to analyze the interaction effects of age and CAG-repeat length on the TFC in HD patients. A simple slope analysis was calculated to illustrate the effects. Depending on TFC results, motor-manifest patients were grouped into five stages. Data from pre-manifest participants were analyzed with regard to years to onset and CAP scores. Results: We identified N = 10,314 participants as manifest HD. A significant part of variance on the TFC was explained by age (R² = 0.029, F (1;10,281) = 308.02, p < 0.001), CAG-repeat length (∆R² = 0.132, ∆F (1;10,280) = 1611.22, p < 0.001), and their interaction (∆R² = 0.049, ∆F (1;10,279) = 634.12, p < 0.001). The model explained altogether 20.9% of the TFC score’s variance (F = 907.60, p < 0.001). Variance of psychiatric and cognitive symptoms significantly differed between stages. Exploratory analysis of median data in pre-manifest participants revealed the highest scores for neuropsychiatric changes between 5 to <20 years from the disease onset. Conclusions: TFC is mainly explained by the neurobiological factors, CAG-repeat length, and age, with subjects having more CAG-repeats showing a faster decline in function. Our study confirms TFC as a robust measure of progression in manifest HD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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11 pages, 1235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Pupillary Response in Multiple Sclerosis Patients with and without Optic Neuritis

by Amparo Gil-Casas, David P. Piñero and Ainhoa Molina-Martín

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3332; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123332 - 17 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1007

Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects the central nervous system which produces abnormalities in visual function, as disturbed pupillary responses, even after an episode of optic neuritis (ON). The aim was to assess different parameters of the pupillary response in MS subjects with and without ON. Therefore, 24 eyes of healthy age-matched subjects were included, 22 eyes of subjects with MS (MS group), and 13 subjects with MS with previous ON (MSON group). Pupillary parameters (ratio pupil max/min; latency; velocity and duration; contraction and dilation; and amplitude of contraction) were recorded with the MYAH topographer. Statistical analysis was performed by IBM SPSS Statistics, and parametrical or non-parametrical tests were used according to the normality of the data. MS patients did not significantly differ from healthy patients in any of the parameters analyzed (p > 0.05). Only patients with previous ON were different from healthy patients in the amplitude (40.71 ± 6.73% vs. 45.22 ± 3.29%, respectively) and latency of contraction (0.35 ± 0.13 s vs. 0.26 ± 0.05 s, respectively). The time to recover 75% of the initial diameter was abnormal in 9% of the MS subjects and 12% of MSON subjects. Based on the results of this study, the contraction process, especially latency and amplitude, was found to be affected in subjects with MS and previous ON. The degree of disability and the relation of the decrease in pupil response with other indicators of MS disease should be further investigated considering other comorbidities such as ON in the affection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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13 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Episodic Memory and Executive Functioning Axis Impairment in MCI Patients: A Multicenter Study in Comparison with CSF Biomarkers

by Brenda Chino, Lucía Torres-Simón, Agnieszka Żelwetro, Inmaculada Concepción Rodríguez-Rojo, Anna Carnes-Vendrell, Gerard Piñol-Ripoll, Raquel Yubero, Nuria Paúl and Fernando Maestú

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3147; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123147 - 26 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1296

Abstract

Background: This study aimed to explore the association between a verbal learning task that evaluates the potential mutual dependency between memory and executive functions (i.e., the Test of Memory Strategies, TMS) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) biomarkers. Methods: A sample of 47 mild cognitive impairment (MCI) participants from Poland and Spain were classified according to the Erlangen Score Diagnostic Algorithm (ESA) into CSF- (n = 16) and CSF+ (n = 31) groups. Correlation analyses between TMS word-list conditions and CSF biomarkers were conducted. Additionally, an analysis of covariance was performed to define the effect on ESA classification in the sample, using as a covariable the country of origin of the participants. Results: Significant associations between the TMS-3 condition and Aβ42, t-tau, and p-tau were observed for the whole sample. In addition, the CSF- participants obtained higher cognitive performance in TMS-3 compared to the CSF+ group. This outcome persisted if the groups were based on Aβ42 scores, but not t-tau or p-tau values. Conclusions: These findings could indicate that poor performance on verbal learning tests may be affected by executive dysfunctions. Therefore, future intervention plans focused on training executive functions would be of interest to improve the ability of MCI patients to encode and organize information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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13 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Study of Retinal Thicknesses in the Eyes of Alzheimer’s Patients, Multiple Sclerosis Patients and Healthy Subjects

by Elena Garcia-Martin, Daniel Jimeno-Huete, Francisco J. Dongil-Moreno, Luciano Boquete, Eva M. Sánchez-Morla, Juan M. Miguel-Jiménez, Almudena López-Dorado, Elisa Vilades, Maria I. Fuertes, Ana Pueyo and Miguel Ortiz del Castillo

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3126; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123126 - 24 Nov 2023

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Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) cause retinal thinning that is detectable in vivo using optical coherence tomography (OCT). To date, no papers have compared the two diseases in terms of the structural differences they produce in the retina. The purpose of this study is to analyse and compare the neuroretinal structure in MS patients, AD patients and healthy subjects using OCT. Spectral domain OCT was performed on 21 AD patients, 33 MS patients and 19 control subjects using the Posterior Pole protocol. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve was used to analyse the differences between the cohorts in nine regions of the retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL), ganglion cell layer (GCL), inner plexiform layer (IPL) and outer nuclear layer (ONL). The main differences between MS and AD are found in the ONL, in practically all the regions analysed (AUROC_FOVEAL = 0.80, AUROC_PARAFOVEAL = 0.85, AUROC_PERIFOVEAL = 0.80, AUROC__PMB = 0.77, AUROC_PARAMACULAR = 0.85, AUROC_{INFERO_NASAL} = 0.75, AUROC_{INFERO_TEMPORAL} = 0.83), and in the paramacular zone (AUROC_PARAMACULAR = 0.75) and infero-temporal quadrant (AUROC_{INFERO_TEMPORAL} = 0.80) of the GCL. In conclusion, our findings suggest that OCT data analysis could facilitate the differential diagnosis of MS and AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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13 pages, 4440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detecting Structural Changes in the Choroidal Layer of the Eye in Neurodegenerative Disease Patients through Optical Coherence Tomography Image Processing

by Sofia Otin, Francisco J. Ávila, Victor Mallen and Elena Garcia-Martin

Biomedicines 2023, 11(11), 2986; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11112986 - 07 Nov 2023

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Abstract

Purpose: To evaluate alterations of the choroid in patients with a neurodegenerative disease versus healthy controls, a custom algorithm based on superpixel segmentation was used. Design: A cross-sectional study was conducted on data obtained in a previous cohort study. Subjects: Swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) B-scan images obtained using a Triton (Topcon, Japan) device were compiled according to current OSCAR IB and APOSTEL OCT image quality criteria. Images were included from three cohorts: multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, Parkinson disease (PD) patients, and healthy subjects. Only patients with early-stage MS and PD were included. Methods: In total, 104 OCT B-scan images were processed using a custom superpixel segmentation (SpS) algorithm to detect boundary limits in the choroidal layer and the optical properties of the image. The algorithm groups pixels with similar structural properties to generate clusters with similar meaningful properties. Main outcomes: SpS selects and groups the superpixels in a segmented choroidal area, computing the choroidal optical image density (COID), measured as the standard mean gray level, and the total choroidal area (CA), measured as px². Results: The CA and choroidal density (CD) were significantly reduced in the two neurodegenerative disease groups (higher in PD than in MS) versus the healthy subjects (p < 0.001); choroidal area was also significantly reduced in the MS group versus the healthy subjects. The COID increased significantly in the PD patients versus the MS patients and in the MS patients versus the healthy controls (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The SpS algorithm detected choroidal tissue boundary limits and differences optical density in MS and PD patients versus healthy controls. The application of the SpS algorithm to OCT images potentially acts as a non-invasive biomarker for the early diagnosis of MS and PD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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12 pages, 1206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Depressive Symptomatology as a Predictor of Cognitive Impairment: Evidence from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging (KLOSA), 2006–2020

by Seong-Uk Baek and Jin-Ha Yoon

Biomedicines 2023, 11(10), 2713; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11102713 - 06 Oct 2023

Viewed by 766

Abstract

Depressive symptoms are recognized as risk factors for cognitive impairment with intricate underlying biological mechanisms. We explored the link between depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment onset; we also assessed how this association is influenced by educational levels. This study included 5843 individuals aged ≥45 years, comprising 27,908 observations from 2006 to 2020. Based on repeated measurements of each participant, we estimated the association between depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment onset after a 2-year follow-up by using generalized estimating equations. The incidence rate was 9.4% among those individuals without depressive symptoms, which was in contrast with a rate of 21.0% among those individuals experiencing depressive symptoms. The odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval [CI]) for the association between depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment onset in the overall sample was 1.61 (1.47–1.76). This association was more pronounced among individuals with higher educational levels. Specifically, the OR (95% CI) of the association between depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment was highest among individuals with a college education (2.60 [1.78–3.81]), and the association was lowest among individuals with elementary or no education levels (1.45 [1.28–1.63]). Our findings highlight the idea that although individuals with higher educational backgrounds exhibit a diminished risk of cognitive impairment, the detrimental impacts of depressive symptoms on cognitive performance are particularly more pronounced within this group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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16 pages, 2163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploratory Longitudinal Study of Ocular Structural and Visual Functional Changes in Subjects at High Genetic Risk of Developing Alzheimer’s Disease

by Inés López-Cuenca, Lidia Sánchez-Puebla, Elena Salobrar-García, María Álvarez-Gutierrez, Lorena Elvira-Hurtado, Ana Barabash, Federico Ramírez-Toraño, José A. Fernández-Albarral, José A. Matamoros, Alberto Nebreda, Alejandra García-Colomo, Ana I. Ramírez, Juan J. Salazar, Pedro Gil, Fernando Maestú, José M. Ramírez and Rosa de Hoz

Biomedicines 2023, 11(7), 2024; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11072024 - 18 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1159

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the evolution of visual changes in cognitively healthy individuals at risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Participants with a first-degree family history of AD (FH+) and carrying the Ε4+ allele for the ApoE gene (ApoE ε4+) underwent retinal thickness analysis using optical coherence tomography (OCT) and visual function assessments, including visual acuity (VA), contrast sensitivity (CS), color perception, perception digital tests, and visual field analysis. Structural analysis divided participants into FH+ ApoE ε4+ and FH− ApoE ε4− groups, while functional analysis further categorized them by age (40–60 years and over 60 years). Over the 27-month follow-up, the FH+ ApoE ε4+ group exhibited thickness changes in all inner retinal layers. Comparing this group to the FH− ApoE ε4− group at 27 months revealed progressing changes in the inner nuclear layer. In the FH+ ApoE ε4+ 40–60 years group, no progression of visual function changes was observed, but an increase in VA and CS was maintained at 3 and 12 cycles per degree, respectively, compared to the group without AD risk at 27 months. In conclusion, cognitively healthy individuals at risk for AD demonstrated progressive retinal structural changes over the 27-month follow-up, while functional changes remained stable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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14 pages, 2979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Systematic Screening of Associations between Medication Use and Risk of Neurodegenerative Diseases Using a Mendelian Randomization Approach

by Wenjing Wang, Linjing Zhang, Wen Cao, Kailin Xia, Junyan Huo, Tao Huang and Dongsheng Fan

Biomedicines 2023, 11(7), 1930; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071930 - 07 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1528

Abstract

Background: Systematically assessing the causal associations between medications and neurodegenerative diseases is significant in identifying disease etiology and novel therapies. Here, we investigated the putative causal associations between 23 existing medication categories and major neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Methods: A two-sample mendelian randomization (MR) approach was conducted. Estimates were calculated using the inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method as the main model. A sensitivity analysis and a pleiotropy analysis were performed to identify potential violations. Results: Genetically predisposition to antihypertensives (OR = 0.809, 95% CI = 0.668–0.981, p = 0.031), thyroid preparations (OR = 0.948, 95% CI = 0.909–0.988, p = 0.011), and immunosuppressants (OR = 0.879, 95% CI = 0.789–0.979, p = 0.018) was associated with a decreased risk of AD. Genetic proxies for thyroid preparations (OR = 0.934, 95% CI = 0.884–0.988, p = 0.017), immunosuppressants (OR = 0.825, 95% CI = 0.699–0.973, p = 0.022), and glucocorticoids (OR = 0.862, 95% CI = 0.756–0.983, p = 0.027) were causally associated with a decreased risk of PD. Genetically determined antithrombotic agents (OR = 1.234, 95% CI = 1.042–1.461, p = 0.015), HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (OR = 1.085, 95% CI = 1.025–1.148, p = 0.005), and salicylic acid and derivatives (OR = 1.294, 95% CI = 1.078–1.553, p = 0.006) were associated with an increased risk of ALS. Conclusions: We presented a systematic view concerning the causal associations between medications and NDs, which will promote the etiology discovery, drug repositioning and patient management for NDs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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Review

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17 pages, 1952 KiB

Open AccessReview

Transcytosis-Driven Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders by mRNA-Expressed Antibody–Transferrin Conjugates

by Sarfaraz K. Niazi and Matthias Magoola

Biomedicines 2024, 12(4), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12040851 - 12 Apr 2024

Viewed by 962

Abstract

The recent setbacks in the withdrawal and approval delays of antibody treatments of neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), attributed to their poor entry across the blood–brain barrier (BBB), emphasize the need to bring novel approaches to enhance the entry across the BBB. One such approach is conjugating the antibodies that bind brain proteins responsible for NDs with the transferrin molecule. This glycoprotein transports iron into cells, connecting with the transferrin receptors (TfRs), piggybacking an antibody–transferrin complex that can subsequently release the antibody in the brain or stay connected while letting the antibody bind. This process increases the concentration of antibodies in the brain, enhancing therapeutic efficacy with targeted delivery and minimum systemic side effects. Currently, this approach is experimented with using drug-transferring conjugates assembled in vitro. Still, a more efficient and safer alternative is to express the conjugate using mRNA technology, as detailed in this paper. This approach will expedite safer discoveries that can be made available at a much lower cost than the recombinant process with in vitro conjugation. Most importantly, the recommendations made in this paper may save the antibodies against the NDs that seem to be failing despite their regulatory approvals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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17 pages, 398 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review of Piezoelectrical Materials Potentially Useful for Peripheral Nerve Repair

by Diogo Casal, Maria Helena Casimiro, Luís M. Ferreira, João Paulo Leal, Gabriela Rodrigues, Raquel Lopes, Diogo Lino Moura, Luís Gonçalves, João B. Lago, Diogo Pais and Pedro M. P. Santos

Biomedicines 2023, 11(12), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11123195 - 01 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1323

Abstract

It has increasingly been recognized that electrical currents play a pivotal role in cell migration and tissue repair, in a process named “galvanotaxis”. In this review, we summarize the current evidence supporting the potential benefits of electric stimulation (ES) in the physiology of peripheral nerve repair (PNR). Moreover, we discuss the potential of piezoelectric materials in this context. The use of these materials has deserved great attention, as the movement of the body or of the external environment can be used to power internally the electrical properties of devices used for providing ES or acting as sensory receptors in artificial skin (e-skin). The fact that organic materials sustain spontaneous degradation inside the body means their piezoelectric effect is limited in duration. In the case of PNR, this is not necessarily problematic, as ES is only required during the regeneration period. Arguably, piezoelectric materials have the potential to revolutionize PNR with new biomedical devices that range from scaffolds and nerve-guiding conduits to sensory or efferent components of e-skin. However, much remains to be learned regarding piezoelectric materials, their use in manufacturing of biomedical devices, and their sterilization process, to fine-tune their safe, effective, and predictable in vivo application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

24 pages, 4095 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview of Recent Advances in the Neuroprotective Potentials of Fisetin against Diverse Insults in Neurological Diseases and the Underlying Signaling Pathways

by Xiangwen Tang, Peng Deng, Yizhen Jiang, Lingling Zhang, Yuqing He and Hao Yang

Biomedicines 2023, 11(11), 2878; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11112878 - 24 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1652

Abstract

The nervous system plays a leading role in the regulation of physiological functions and activities in the body. However, a variety of diseases related to the nervous system have a serious impact on human health. It is increasingly clear that neurological diseases are multifactorial pathological processes involving multiple cellular systems, and the onset of these diseases usually involves a diverse array of molecular mechanisms. Unfortunately, no effective therapy exists to slow down the progression or prevent the development of diseases only through the regulation of a single factor. To this end, it is pivotal to seek an ideal therapeutic approach for challenging the complicated pathological process to achieve effective treatment. In recent years, fisetin, a kind of flavonoid widely existing in fruits, vegetables and other plants, has shown numerous interesting biological activities with clinical potentials including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neurotrophic effects. In addition, fisetin has been reported to have diverse pharmacological properties and neuroprotective potentials against various neurological diseases. The neuroprotective effects were ascribed to its unique biological properties and multiple clinical pharmacological activities associated with the treatment of different neurological disorders. In this review, we summarize recent research progress regarding the neuroprotective potential of fisetin and the underlying signaling pathways of the treatment of several neurological diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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Other

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22 pages, 1487 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

OCT Imaging in Murine Models of Alzheimer’s Disease in a Systematic Review: Findings, Methodology and Future Perspectives

by Lidia Sánchez-Puebla, Inés López-Cuenca, Elena Salobrar-García, Ana I. Ramírez, José A. Fernández-Albarral, José A. Matamoros, Lorena Elvira-Hurtado, Juan J. Salazar, José M. Ramírez and Rosa de Hoz

Biomedicines 2024, 12(3), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12030528 - 27 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1395

Abstract

The murine models of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have advanced our understanding of the pathophysiology. In vivo studies of the retina using optical coherence tomography (OCT) have complemented histological methods; however, the lack of standardisation in OCT methodologies for murine models of AD has led to significant variations in the results of different studies. A literature search in PubMed and Scopus has been performed to review the different methods used in these models using OCT and to analyse the methodological characteristics of each study. In addition, some recommendations are offered to overcome the challenges of using OCT in murine models. The results reveal a lack of consensus on OCT device use, retinal area analysed, segmentation techniques, and analysis software. Although some studies use the same OCT device, variations in other parameters make the direct comparison of results difficult. Standardisation of retinal analysis criteria in murine models of AD using OCT is crucial to ensure consistent and comparable results. This implies the application of uniform measurement and segmentation protocols. Despite the absence of standardisation, OCT has proven valuable in advancing our understanding of the pathophysiology of AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurodegenerative Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives)

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