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Diversity
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Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle
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Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle

A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Diversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2024) | Viewed by 9546

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dorota Zawadzka

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Forest Science, Eagle Conservation Committee, University of Łódż, Branch in Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Tomaszów Mazowiecki, 97-200 Łódż, Poland
Interests: ecology and conservation birds of prey; feeding ecology of raptors; popiulation dynamics and protection of forest grouse; active protection of endangered species; habitat preference of woodpeckers and owls
Dr. Paweł Mirski

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Eagle Conservation Committee, University of Białystok, 15-328 Białystok, Poland
Interests: birds of prey; movement ecology; raptor conservation; raptor ecology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Diversity Journal is about to launch a Special Issue dedicated to Ecology and Conservation of the White-tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle.

The white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla and golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos are among the largest birds of prey in Europe.  As a result of long persecution in the first half of the 20th century, the populations and range of both eagle species have strongly reduced, and the population has strongly declined.  After the implementation of effective conservation measures in the late 20th century, the white-tailed eagle showed a spectacular increase in numbers combined with territorial expansion in Europe. The golden eagle's numbers also increased. Both species have very high spatial requirements, and need old trees for nest placement. In ecosystems, they serve as apex predators, and are increasingly exerting pressure on their prey populations.  They live a long time and start breeding late. Their populations have low densities and are sensitive to adverse environmental changes. In ecosystems, eagles act as apex predators and increasingly exert pressure on their prey populations. In biodiversity conservation, they are considered as target species and umbrella species for co-occurring birds with smaller spatial requirements. Knowledge of eagles' ecology, genetics, population dynamics, reproductive processes, causes of mortality, foraging ecology but also threats and causes of mortality is crucial for their successful conservation.

Dr. Dorota Zawadzka
Dr. Paweł Mirski
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • ecology of eagles
  • breeding biology
  • movement ecology
  • population trends
  • diet composition and feeding ecology
  • role as a top predator
  • conservation

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 8645 KiB  
Article
Golden Eagle Populations, Movements, and Landscape Barriers: Insights from Scotland
by Alan H. Fielding, David Anderson, Catherine Barlow, Stuart Benn, Robin Reid, Ruth Tingay, Ewan D. Weston and D. Philip Whitfield
Diversity 2024, 16(4), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16040195 - 25 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1237
Abstract
GPS satellite tracking allows novel investigations of how golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos use the landscape at several scales and at different life history stages, including research on geographical barriers which may prevent or limit range expansion or create population/sub-population isolation. If there are [...] Read more.
GPS satellite tracking allows novel investigations of how golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos use the landscape at several scales and at different life history stages, including research on geographical barriers which may prevent or limit range expansion or create population/sub-population isolation. If there are significant barriers to golden eagle movements, there could be demographic and genetic consequences. Genetic studies have led investigations on the identification of sub-species, populations, and sub-populations but should be conjoined with demographic studies and dispersal movements to understand fully such designations and their geographic delimitation. Scottish eagles are genetically differentiated from continental European birds, with thousands of years of separation creating a distinct population, though without sub-species assignation. They present unique research opportunities to examine barriers to movements illustrated by satellite tracking under Scotland’s highly variable geography. We primarily examined two features, using more than seven million dispersal records from satellite tags fitted to 152 nestlings. The first was the presence of unsuitable terrestrial habitat. We found few movements across a region of largely unsuitable lowland habitat between upland regions substantially generated by geological features over 70 km apart (Highland Boundary Fault and Southern Uplands Fault). This was expected from the Golden Eagle Topography model, and presumed isolation was the premise for an ongoing reinforcement project in the south of Scotland, translocating eagles from the north (South Scotland Golden Eagle Project: SSGEP). Second was that larger expanses of water can be a barrier. We found that, for a northwestern archipelago (Outer Hebrides), isolated by ≥24 km of sea (and with prior assignation of genetical and historical separation), there were no tagged bird movements with the Inner Hebrides and/or the Highlands mainland (the main sub-population), confirming their characterisation as a second sub-population. Results on the willingness of eagles to cross open sea or sea lochs (fjords) elsewhere in Scotland were consistent on distance. While apparently weaker than the Outer Hebrides in terms of separation, the designation of a third sub-population in the south of Scotland seems appropriate. Our results validate the SSGEP, as we also observed no movement of birds across closer sea crossings from abundant Highland sources to the Southern Uplands. Based on telemetric results, we also identified where any re-colonisation of England, due to the SSGEP, is most likely to occur. We emphasise, nevertheless, that our study’s records during dispersal will be greater than the natal dispersal distances (NDDs), when birds settle to breed after dispersal, and NDDs are the better shorter arbiter for connectivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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14 pages, 10842 KiB  
Article
GPS Tracking Reveals the White-Tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla as an Ambassador for the Natura 2000 Network
by Remo Probst, Matthias Schmidt, Michael McGrady and Christian Pichler
Diversity 2024, 16(3), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16030145 - 25 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1680
Abstract
The Natura 2000 network of protected areas is the backbone of species conservation in the European Union. We investigated whether Austrian-hatched white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) make particular use of this multinational network during their natal dispersal, and what habitats were of [...] Read more.
The Natura 2000 network of protected areas is the backbone of species conservation in the European Union. We investigated whether Austrian-hatched white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) make particular use of this multinational network during their natal dispersal, and what habitats were of importance to the eagles. We analyzed the utilization distribution of 907,466 GPS locations from 38 dispersing white-tailed eagles using a dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Model. Eagles ranged over a huge area of central-eastern Europe. Natura 2000 sites overlapped with 67% of the resulting 50% isopleth; i.e., a high probability of utilization of Natura 2000 areas by white-tailed eagles was found. White-tailed eagles used wetlands, waterbodies, and deciduous forests adjacent to wet habitats disproportionately often. Coniferous forests and settlements were avoided. Anthropogenically caused mortalities hardly occurred within Natura 2000 sites. Our study suggests that the Natura 2000 network is a crucial tool for conserving the white-tailed eagle. This top predator is an ambassador for the Natura 2000 idea during all life stages, and should continue to be a conservation priority of the network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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12 pages, 878 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Variation in First Territory Settlement of Dispersing Golden Eagles: An Innate Behaviour?
by D. Philip Whitfield, Alan H. Fielding, David Anderson, Stuart Benn, Robin Reid, Ruth Tingay and Ewan D. Weston
Diversity 2024, 16(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16020082 - 26 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1235
Abstract
Despite advancements through satellite telemetry, knowledge of the behaviour and ecology of large raptors during natal dispersal is still poor, even though this transience phase is important in understanding the population dynamics and conservation of these keystone species. After this phase, which can [...] Read more.
Despite advancements through satellite telemetry, knowledge of the behaviour and ecology of large raptors during natal dispersal is still poor, even though this transience phase is important in understanding the population dynamics and conservation of these keystone species. After this phase, which can take several years, the subsequent rapid transitional event on first territory settlement is less studied. It apparently occurs earlier without competition from existing territory occupants. The time of year when young large raptors settle on a territory has rarely been addressed empirically. Our study of seasonal timing of first settlement used data from 46 golden eagles GPS-tagged as nestlings in Scotland which were tracked to their first territory settlement, as adjudged by a robust algorithmic method. We show that when young golden eagles occupied their first territory, their settlements were uncommon in summer and most common in late winter/spring, but also occurred in autumn into early winter. The significant seasonal pattern was consistent, regardless of the probable prior occupancy status (vacant/occupied) of the settled territory (respectively, the likely absence or presence of defending territorial birds). This showed that seasonal territory settlement was unlikely to be related to any response from territory occupants. It infers further that seasonality in first territory settlement was underpinned by innate behaviours in dispersing eagles. Seasonal distribution of settlement dates was significantly different between sexes, with males more likely to settle in autumn, predominantly in prior vacant territories. We speculate on potential causative drivers behind our results and conclude that more research is clearly needed in this field of study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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14 pages, 831 KiB  
Article
Approach Distances of Scottish Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos to Wind Turbines According to Blade Motion Status, Wind Speed, and Preferred Habitat
by Alan H. Fielding, David Anderson, Stuart Benn, John Taylor, Ruth Tingay, Ewan D. Weston and D. Philip Whitfield
Diversity 2024, 16(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16010071 - 21 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1437
Abstract
Understanding drivers underlying birds’ responses to operational wind turbines is essential for robust wind farm proposal assessments, especially for large raptors with life history traits engendering sensitivity to impacts from two potential adverse effects: fatality through collision with rotating turbine blades and functional [...] Read more.
Understanding drivers underlying birds’ responses to operational wind turbines is essential for robust wind farm proposal assessments, especially for large raptors with life history traits engendering sensitivity to impacts from two potential adverse effects: fatality through collision with rotating turbine blades and functional habitat loss through avoidance of turbines. The balance between these two potential effects represents opposing extremes on a continuum and is influenced by several factors. Collisions have an obvious impact on survival, but the impacts of avoidance may be more insidious and potentially more significant for a population. It is reasonable to conclude that collisions are less likely when blades are motionless. Consequently, turbine shutdown systems (TSSs, “shutdown on demand” or “curtailment”), instigated as raptors approach operational turbines, may provide mitigation against collisions. By contrast, if avoidance is most likely, this could be independent of blade motion, and TSSs/curtailment would provide no mitigation against habitat loss. For birds tending to wariness of turbines, therefore, it is important to understand if it is conditional on blade motion. Scottish golden eagles show a strong propensity to avoid (be wary of) turbines, subject largely to the suitability of habitat at and surrounding turbine locations. A previous Scottish study found that approach distances to turbines by non-territorial eagles were unaffected by blade motion but were closer at higher wind speed. Here, we analyse movement data from a GPS-tagged territorial eagle and non-territorial eagles responding to the motion status (and wind speed) of turbines at another Scottish wind farm. Eagles’ approach distances to turbines were only weakly affected by blade motion but were closer at higher wind speed. We again found that habitat suitability in and around turbine locations was strongly influential on eagles’ approach distance to turbines. Our confirmation that blade motion had little effect on Scottish golden eagles’ wariness of turbines suggests that for eagles that are prone to avoid turbines, their wariness is a response to turbines per se, and not blades’ movement. In our study system, and others where avoidance is the predominant response, curtailment of turbines’ operation on birds’ close approaches, or making turbine blades more obvious, should, therefore, have little material influence on functional habitat loss impacts. If true, this has important implications for wind farm designs and any proposed mitigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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12 pages, 1646 KiB  
Article
Diet Composition Explains Interannual Fluctuations in Reproductive Performance in a Lowland Golden Eagle Population
by Gunnar Sein and Ülo Väli
Diversity 2024, 16(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16010069 - 20 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1056
Abstract
Food supply stands out as one of the most critical drivers of population demographics by limiting reproductive rates. In this study, we assessed fluctuations in diet composition and monitored various reproductive parameters over a nine-year period in a Golden Eagle population in an [...] Read more.
Food supply stands out as one of the most critical drivers of population demographics by limiting reproductive rates. In this study, we assessed fluctuations in diet composition and monitored various reproductive parameters over a nine-year period in a Golden Eagle population in an Eastern European peatland. The identification of 2439 prey specimens from 84 species revealed that the studied eagles primarily preyed upon birds (constituting 78.3% of prey numbers and 67.2% of prey biomass) and less on mammals (21.6% and 32.8%, respectively). Grouse emerged as the most important prey group (31% and 27%), followed by waterfowl (17%) and hares (8% and 14%). The most significant prey species, both in terms of numbers and weight, were the Black Grouse, Mountain Hare, Common Crane, and Capercaillie. The share of the Black Grouse decreased, while those of the White-fronted Goose, Roe Deer, and hares increased. The food niche, as measured by the Levins’ index, was broad (6.6), and it expanded during the study. On average, 58.3% of Golden Eagle pairs initiated breeding annually, with 69.1% successfully completing it, and 0.41 young per occupied territory were produced annually; there was pronounced interannual variation in reproductive performance. These fluctuations were associated with the shares of White-fronted Goose, Capercaillie, Mountain Hare and Roe Deer in the diet, suggesting that these species may be gaining increasing importance for the Golden Eagle, particularly following the decline of the Black Grouse. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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14 pages, 3982 KiB  
Article
Ranging Behavior of Non-Breeding and Breeding Adult White-Tailed Eagles
by Paweł Mirski and Dariusz Anderwald
Diversity 2023, 15(12), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15121208 - 08 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 985
Abstract
Space utilization by animals is vital for species ecology but also a valuable predictor of habitat conditions and environment capacity for a given species. We investigated the ranging behavior of the white-tailed eagle, an apex predator experiencing a significant population increase and saturation. [...] Read more.
Space utilization by animals is vital for species ecology but also a valuable predictor of habitat conditions and environment capacity for a given species. We investigated the ranging behavior of the white-tailed eagle, an apex predator experiencing a significant population increase and saturation. Comparing five adult floaters and two breeding males tracked with GPS loggers in Poland for 1–5 years, we observed substantial differences in space utilization. Breeding males occupied approximately 63 to 122 km2 (using 90% kernel density), while floaters ranged over roughly 6000 to 60,000 km2. Breeding males expanded their home ranges during successful breeding, with one male frequently flying 29 km to a foraging site when raising chicks but hardly doing so in other seasons. Both breeding males revisited nests more frequently in April and May (up to seven times daily, typically two to four), exhibiting distinct seasonal daily movement patterns. Floaters had slightly higher daily movement rates with a weak seasonal pattern. We conclude that breeding males’ ranging behavior depended on proximity to optimal foraging sites, while adult floaters engaged in prolonged wandering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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14 pages, 1953 KiB  
Article
Changes in Avian Top-Predator Diet in the 21st Century in Northeast (NE) Poland
by Dorota Zawadzka and Grzegorz Zawadzki
Diversity 2023, 15(11), 1144; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15111144 - 16 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1143
Abstract
The White-Tailed Eagle (WTE) Haliaeetus albicilla is a top avian predator that has rapidly increased in numbers and range in large parts of Europe in recent decades. In Poland, over the past 30 years, it has recolonized previously abandoned areas. In 1991, the [...] Read more.
The White-Tailed Eagle (WTE) Haliaeetus albicilla is a top avian predator that has rapidly increased in numbers and range in large parts of Europe in recent decades. In Poland, over the past 30 years, it has recolonized previously abandoned areas. In 1991, the first breeding pair in a large forest complex, the Augustów Forest (Northeast (NE) Poland), was recorded. In 2022, there were 13 breeding pairs. We analyzed changes in the diet composition of WTE in 2000–2023, divided into three periods: 2000–2005, 2009–2017, and 2018–2023. Throughout the 24 years of study, birds were the most frequently recorded food item, accounting for an average of 58% of food items, followed by fish (34%) and mammals (7%). During the study period, the most numerous food items were the Northern Pike Esox lucius, Coot Fulica atra, Common Bream Abramis brama, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, and storks Ciconia sp. These species together accounted for 52% of food items. We recorded a long-term increasing share of Northern Pike, storks, and Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus. Opposite changes, with declining frequency, were found for Coots and ducks. The share of the Coot, ducks, and Great Crested Grebe, as well as the total share of food connected with lakes in the WTE’s diet, increased along the growing area of lakes in the territory of the WTE. The proportion of fish in the food did not show a relationship with the increase in the area of lakes, while the most frequently eaten fish species changed. Observed changes in food composition appear related to the settlement of the habitat-diverse areas by individual breeding pairs and changes the availability of main food categories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of the White-Tailed Eagle and Golden Eagle)
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