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Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates

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A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Diversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 23732

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Friedrich Reimoser

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor

1. Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 1160 Vienna, Austria
2. Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), 1180 Vienna, Austria
Interests: wildlife ecology and management; forest ecology; ungulate-habitat interactions, natural resource management; biodiversity conservation

Prof. Dr. Ursula Nopp-Mayr

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), 1180 Vienna, Austria
Interests: preventive forest protection; habitat management; wildlife ecology; ungulates; tetraonids; habitat modelling; plant-animal interactions; herbivory and forest regeneration; primeval forest research

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wildlife ungulate species are essential drivers of the dynamics of many terrestrial ecosystems with impacts on the biodiversity at different levels of the systems. Investigations of ungulate species and their ecological interactions with forestry, agriculture and other land-use activities in various landscapes can be related, in particular, to the following topics:

Ungulates and their habitats—ecological dependencies, interactions in different ecosystems;
Impacts of ungulates on plant diversity, in different plant communities;
Wildlife ungulates as pests in forestry and agriculture, disease transmission;
Methods for an objective assessment of game damage, human–wildlife conflict;
Competition between ungulate species;
Genetic diversity within ungulate species;
Ungulates and their predators—impacts, interactions, predator–ungulate–plant cascades;
Management of ungulates—case studies, guidelines, sustainability, biodiversity, legal regulations;
Conservation of ungulates (legal regulations, national parks, different cultivated landscapes, best practices).

This Special Issue gives an overview of current research results on ungulate species and the interactions between ungulates and their habitats. We accept reviews as well as short and long research papers that cover the above topics.

Prof. Dr. Friedrich Reimoser
Prof. Dr. Ursula Nopp-Mayr
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

wildlife ungulate species
ecological interactions
species competition
diversity
wildlife management
conservation
sustainable use
human–wildlife conflicts

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 182 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates

by Friedrich Reimoser and Ursula Nopp-Mayr

Diversity 2024, 16(3), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16030182 - 17 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1196

Abstract

Wild ungulates are important drivers of the dynamics of many terrestrial ecosystems and impact biodiversity at different system levels [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 2283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Signals of Pig Ancestry in Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, from Eastern Austria: Current Hybridisation or Incomplete Gene Pool Differentiation and Historical Introgressions?

by Denise Böheim, Felix Knauer, Milomir Stefanović, Richard Zink, Anna Kübber-Heiss, Annika Posautz, Christoph Beiglböck, Andrea Dressler, Verena Strauss, Helmut Dier, Mihajla Djan, Nevena Veličković, Chavdar Dinev Zhelev, Steve Smith and Franz Suchentrunk

Diversity 2023, 15(6), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15060790 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2007

Abstract

In wild boar, Sus scrofa, from Europe, domestic pig-typical ancestry is traced at varying levels. We hypothesised wild boar with pig-typical gene pool characteristics, i.e., “introgression”, congregate more in peri-urban habitats, because of less shyness and better adaptation to anthropogenic stress. We used 16 microsatellites to study introgression levels of 375 wild boar from peri-urban Vienna, Austria, and rural regions in comparison to commercial slaughter pigs, Mangaliza, and Turopolje pigs. We also expected more introgression in locations of warmer climates and lower precipitation. Despite discrimination of wild boar and pigs with 99.73% and 97.87% probability, respectively, all wild boars exhibited pig-typical gene pool characteristics, mostly at a very low level. Recent hybridisation was suspected in only 0.53% of wild boar, corresponding to the current largely indoor pig breeding/rearing in the region, with no chance of natural gene exchange between pigs and wild boar. Rather, pig ancestry in wild boar stems from incomplete gene pool differentiation during domestication and/or historical introgressions, when free-ranging pig farming was common. Individual introgression levels were lower in wild boar from peri-urban habitats, possibly reflecting the largely historical absence of pig farms there. Moreover, a marginal precipitation effect, but no temperature effect on introgression was observed. The latter, however, needs to be explored further by a more comprehensive data set. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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13 pages, 1793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution of Hunting and Its Potential Effect on Browsing Impact of Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) on Forest Vegetation

by Paul Griesberger, Florian Kunz, Friedrich Reimoser, Klaus Hackländer and Leopold Obermair

Diversity 2023, 15(5), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050613 - 30 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1372

Abstract

Increasing numbers of wild ungulates in human-dominated landscapes in Europe could lead to negative effects, such as damages to forests through browsing. To prevent those effects and, thus, mitigate wildlife-based conflicts while ensuring viable ungulate populations, sustainable management is required. Roe deer, as the most abundant cervid species in Europe, is primarily managed via hunting to decrease population densities through harvesting. Besides direct mortality, non-lethal effects of hunting activities further affect the spatial habitat selection for this species. Accordingly, the spatial distribution of hunting locations might influence game impact on forest vegetation. To examine these relationships in more detail, we linked the spatial distribution of hunting locations for roe deer with forest damage through browsing in 20 regions in Upper Austria. Consistent with our hypothesis, an avoidance of forests by hunters was found in regions with <20% forest cover and intolerable browsing impact. When hunters in certain regions, however, used forests according to their availability, game impact on forest vegetation was tolerable. Although forest damage by ungulates depends on numerous factors, we conclude that careful consideration of hunting locations might be an additional approach to reduce browsing intensity by roe deer, at least in regions with low forest cover. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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16 pages, 2368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Obtaining Sustainable Population Structures for the Management of Red Deer

by Ángel J. Martín-Fernández, Sigfredo Ortuño and Susana Martín-Fernández

Diversity 2023, 15(5), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050612 - 30 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1187

Abstract

Cervus elaphus populations are spreading and growing in many parts of Europe. This growth can have detrimental effects on biodiversity and ecosystem function. Successful strategies to manage large herbivores require reliable information on density and population trends. This paper presents a methodology to achieve a sustainable distribution of red deer by age and sex classes over time. Instead of traditional algebraic methods, the method consists of a simple iterative process that uses convergence to obtain the dominant eigenvalue and eigenvector of the biological matrix from an initial population. This eigenvalue represents the annual growth rate of the population, and the eigenvector represents the ideal age and sex class distribution of the population. The method has been applied to a fenced preserve in the province of Toledo, Spain. An annual population growth rate of 1.63 (dominant eigenvalue of the biological matrix) was obtained from an initial population and the biological matrix of the deer on the preserve. The convergence of this rate occurred in year 14, but the carrying capacity allows for a population close to the population in year 17 according to the prediction, which is therefore considered to be the year when the ideal population distribution is achieved. This methodology allows managers to numerically justify how to control population growth to preserve biodiversity and sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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22 pages, 3299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Browsing Impact in Beech Forests: The Importance of Tree Responses after Browsing

by Janika Kim Angst and Andrea Doris Kupferschmid

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020262 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1456

Abstract

Browsing by ungulates can affect the development of a forest stand due to selective browsing and shifts in the growth ranking between tree species. Assessing browsing impact in an objective way is difficult in patchily distributed beech forests. In systematically arranged plots near Kirchberg, Switzerland, the height increment of the two saplings nearest to the plot center (k-tree method) was measured for each height class and tree species, and the within-tree browsing intensity and damage frequency were assessed. In total, 21 tree species were found. Browsing was particularly frequent in climate-adapted species. Winter browsing was more frequent than summer browsing, which was also true for deciduous species, and it significantly reduced height growth. Former damage along the main stem further reduced upgrowth. Browsing shifted the height increment ratio in favor of Fagus sylvatica. Many winter-browsed saplings of Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior and Prunus avium had no new leader shoot by the end of the next growing season, i.e., browsing had a long-lasting impact. For estimating browsing impact, it is thus important to assess delays in the response after browsing. Foresters could easily apply the k-tree method in autumn for effective assessments of browsing impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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21 pages, 2491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Ungulate Herbivory Translate into Diversity of Woody Plants? A Long-Term Study in a Montane Forest Ecosystem in Austria

by Ursula Nopp-Mayr, Eva Maria Schöll, Frederik Sachser, Susanne Reimoser and Friedrich Reimoser

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020165 - 25 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1552

Abstract

Different species-specific traits of woody plant species, feeding preferences of herbivores together with resulting effects on plant competition are expected to translate into different plant community structures and expressions of biodiversity. We studied the diversity of woody plant species (trees and shrubs) and structural diversity of forest trees, using a 30-year and an 18-year dataset of ungulate exclosure-control plot pairs in a mixed alpine forest community in Austria. We surveyed the tallest individuals per tree species and plot and analyzed the collective of top-height individuals per plot pair. Incidence data for exclosure and control plots were aggregated. Comparing species diversity and diversity of height classes on the plots throughout time, we calculated diversity profiles based on Hill numbers. Diversity of top height individuals and structural diversity, expressed by height classes, were two diversity aspects that differed between exclosures and control plots. Other diversity estimates of woody plant species showed huge variation without significant differences between plots. Height growth was significantly suppressed by ungulate herbivory. Effects of ungulate herbivores in forest ecosystems are highly complex and context-dependent and thus not reducible to simple top-down forces. Long-term surveys provide data that reflect “ultimate” effects of herbivory interacting with other drivers of community dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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16 pages, 9157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Killing Large Carnivores to Enhance Moose Harvests: New Insights from a Long-Term View

by Sterling D. Miller, David K. Person and R. Terry Bowyer

Diversity 2022, 14(11), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14110939 - 2 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5194

Abstract

We analyzed harvest data to test hypotheses that nearly 4 decades of effort to reduce abundance of brown bears (Ursus arctos), black bears (U. americanus) and gray wolves (Canis lupus) in an 60,542 km² area in south-central Alaska (Game Management Unit [GMU] 13) was positively correlated with moose (Alces alces) harvests in some time-lagged fashion. Predator-reduction efforts were progressively more aggressive over decades (both de facto and officially designated predator control) and did not have clear starting points which complicated our post hoc analyses. We documented no positive correlations (p > 0.05) between harvests of brown and black bears and subsequent moose harvests for any time lag. Moose harvest was negatively correlated with the previous years’ wolf harvest, but the relationship was weak (correlation = −0.33, p < 0.05). Consequently, we reject our hypotheses that harvest of predators was positively correlated with moose harvests. We also observed no differences in mean moose harvests during periods of officially designated wolf control (2005–2020) and a previous period (p > 0.50). We recommend that predator reductions designed to improve hunter harvests of moose be conducted within a research framework that will permit improved interpretations of results and the implementation of an adaptive-management approach to achieve management objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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18 pages, 1166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa L.) on Forests, Agricultural Lands and Population Management in Lithuania

by Arūnas Tarvydas and Olgirda Belova

Diversity 2022, 14(10), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14100801 - 26 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2640

Abstract

The wild boar (Sus scrofa L., 1758) is one of the most common and widespread game species not only in the Baltic Sea region but also throughout its entire range. However, quantitative population management is required due to the danger of contagious diseases; the census is imprecise, and integrated management and monitoring are still missing in Lithuania. This study focused on the current condition of the wild boar population at the country level, species activity in forests and adjacent agricultural lands, the problem of damage to agriculture and forestry caused by wild boar, and methods for the management of the wild boar population. A methodology for the assessment of the effect of wild boar will help in reducing their impact. For the successful management of wild boar, an increase in the carrying capacity in conformity with animal density should be accomplished. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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19 pages, 1193 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Browsing Damage on Scots Pine: Direct and Indirect Effects of Landscape Characteristics, Moose and Deer Populations

by Sabine E. Pfeffer, Sabrina Dressel, Märtha Wallgren, Jonas Bergquist and Christer Kalén

Diversity 2022, 14(9), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14090734 - 6 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2006

Abstract

Reducing browsing damages from cervids (Cervidae) on economically valuable tree species is a challenging task in many countries. Apart from cervid abundance, landscape characteristics, such as forest composition, land use, forage availability and climatic conditions, may affect the degree of browsing through both direct and indirect effects. A better understanding of basic mechanisms in this complex system is needed to design efficient and convincing management strategies. Focusing on Sweden as a case, which has been widely studied using regression analyses only, we applied path analysis to test the validity of a model on the indirect and direct links between landscape characteristics, cervid populations, and browsing damages on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Our results validated the tested model in which moose (Alces alces) density and pine availability directly influence browsing damages. Increasing amounts of pine forests, preferred deciduous trees, and young forest had positive direct effects on moose densities and thereby indirectly contributed to increased browsing damages. The density of smaller deer species showed no direct effect on browsing damages on pine. Path analysis corroborated our attempt to disentangle direct and indirect potential causal drivers of browsing damages and shows that the choice of statistical method may alter the understanding of mechanistic driving forces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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Review

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14 pages, 331 KiB

Open AccessReview

Is the Impact of the European Mouflon on Vegetation Influenced by the Allochthonous Nature of the Species?

by Tamás Kárpáti and András Náhlik

Diversity 2023, 15(6), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15060778 - 15 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1373

Abstract

The mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon) is an introduced ungulate in continental Europe. It has adapted well to its occupied habitats over the last 150 years. Its growing population has drawn increasing attention to its impact on autochthonous species, especially in endangered ecosystems. Its allochthonous character, habitat selection, and feeding led scientists to question the raison d’etre of mouflons. The mouflon’s space use and foraging strategies highlighted some pressure elements it exerts on those habitats. Mouflon trampling damage may be behind the degradation of rare, endangered grasslands. We review studies to discuss the results and the limitations of exclusion experiments to evaluate the extent of mouflon-caused damage in the context of population density. We review the forest damage attributed to mouflons considering interspecies competition with other large herbivores such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). Climate change makes the mouflon use its space differently when seeking shelter in southern habitats; consequently, the increased trampling and foraging pressures suggest new challenges in managing its impact. We review research results on these direct impacts of the species; however, the long-term effects on herbaceous plant communities, such as rock grasslands, are still unclear. This is true for the mouflon’s influence under changing population dynamics. Our results intend to set directions for future research on long-term experiments with density impact, coexistence with red deer or chamois, and warming-climate-driven behavior change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

14 pages, 1749 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ungulates and Their Impact on Reptiles: A Review of Interspecific Relationships

by Thabang Rainett Teffo, Ádám Fehér and Krisztián Katona

Diversity 2023, 15(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010028 - 25 Dec 2022

Viewed by 2452

Abstract

Several ungulate species are showing increasing population patterns within their geographical distribution ranges, leading to constant interactions with other animal species. Varying densities and activities of different ungulates may result in diverse impacts on other coexisting species groups, including large numbers of threatened species, such as reptiles. In this study, we performed an analysis of the available literature to investigate the impacts of ungulates on reptiles. We aimed to reveal the diversity of: (1) the geographical and environmental distribution of related investigations; (2) the ungulate and reptile species involved; and (3) the characteristics of interactions (direct or indirect, positive or negative) from 69 publications. Our results show that the most papers were reported from the Americas (42%) and Australia (28%). The proportions of studies were balanced for wild ungulates (53%) and livestock (47%). Wild boar (Sus scrofa) was found to be the most problematic species on reptiles whereas reptiles which suffered the harshest impacts were Squamates (i.e., lizards, and snakes). Ungulate activities (e.g., digging by wild boar) may directly harm reptiles (consuming or killing them) or indirectly affect them by modifying their habitats or destroying their hideouts. Some preferential effects were also noted (e.g., by moderate livestock grazing or when wild ungulates are prey for large reptiles). Published livestock impacts were mainly indirect and mostly negatively linked to overgrazing. We conclude that it is important to manage and monitor the densities of ungulates to minimize their negative impacts on reptile species, especially in case of wild boar and grazing livestock, but also to maintain their moderate beneficial effects (e.g., as prey basis). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity, Conservation and Management of Ungulates)

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