Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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21 pages, 5697 KiB  
Review
Inherent and Local Magnetic Field Structures in Jets from Active Galactic Nuclei
by Denise C. Gabuzda
Galaxies 2021, 9(3), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9030058 - 25 Aug 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4244
Abstract
In theoretical models for the electromagnetic launching of astrophysical jets, a helical magnetic (B)-field component is generated through the winding up of an initial longitudinal field component by the rotation of the cental black hole and accretion disk. This helical field [...] Read more.
In theoretical models for the electromagnetic launching of astrophysical jets, a helical magnetic (B)-field component is generated through the winding up of an initial longitudinal field component by the rotation of the cental black hole and accretion disk. This helical field component travels outward with the jet plasma. There is now abundant evidence that the jets of active galactic nuclei carry helical B fields, and the presence of such fields has been invoked to explain a wide range of phenomena observed in these jets. However, distinguishing between features associated with this inherent jet B field and with B fields generated by local phenomena such as shocks and shear can be challenging. There is now evidence that the field that is accreted is dipolar like, giving rise to a current distribution with inward currents along both jet axes and outward currents in a more extended region around the jets. Striking limb brightening has been observed for several relatively nearby active galactic nuclei; it is argued that this must be due to some intrinsic property of the jet, which is independent of the viewing angle, such as its helical B field, or mass loading and/or particle acceleration at the jet edges. Circular-polarization observations may make it possible to reconstruct the full three-dimensional B field of jets carrying a helical B-field component, and to correctly infer the direction of rotation of the central black hole and its accretion disk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarimetry as a Probe of Magnetic Fields in AGN Jets)
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17 pages, 13212 KiB  
Review
Message in a Bottle: Unveiling the Magneto-Ionic Complexity of AGNs through the Stokes QU-Fitting Technique
by Alice Pasetto
Galaxies 2021, 9(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9030056 - 11 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2211
Abstract
Here, I overview one of the available techniques for the analysis of broad-band spectropolarimetric data, the Stokes QU-fitting. Since broad-band receivers have been installed at most radio facilities, the collection of radio data, both the total intensity and the linear polarization, is revealing [...] Read more.
Here, I overview one of the available techniques for the analysis of broad-band spectropolarimetric data, the Stokes QU-fitting. Since broad-band receivers have been installed at most radio facilities, the collection of radio data, both the total intensity and the linear polarization, is revealing interesting features in their spectra. The polarized light, and therefore its properties, i.e. the fractional polarization p and the polarized angle χ, are now finally well sampled in wide wavelength ranges. The new complex behaviors revealed by the data can be studied using the Stokes QU-fitting, which consists of modeling the Stokes parameters Q and U using wavelength-dependent analytical models, available in the literature. This technique provides a very good diagnostic of the nature and structure of the magnetized plasma, with the possibility to identify complex structures, internal or external, of the source of study. A summary of the available and most used models describing the polarization behavior, is presented. Moreover, some of the most significant observational works which use this technique are also summarized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarimetry as a Probe of Magnetic Fields in AGN Jets)
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16 pages, 2585 KiB  
Review
An Unofficial Account of the Beginnings of VLBI Polarimetry: From Jodrell Bank to the Event Horizon Telescope
by John Wardle
Galaxies 2021, 9(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9030052 - 19 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2574
Abstract
I offer a brief and personal history of the development of polarization sensitive observations with widely separated antennas. The story starts at Jodrell Bank in the late 1960s with a 24 km baseline radio linked (but not phase stable) interferometer and reaches to [...] Read more.
I offer a brief and personal history of the development of polarization sensitive observations with widely separated antennas. The story starts at Jodrell Bank in the late 1960s with a 24 km baseline radio linked (but not phase stable) interferometer and reaches to the present Event Horizon Telescope (with global span and independent atomic clocks) which has just published an image of the linearly polarized radiation surrounding the black hole shadow of M87*. I was privileged to be witness to many of the developments along the way, either as an instigator, a bystander, or an unindicted co-conspirator. I am most interested in the technical developments that enabled these increasingly sophisticated observations, and in the ideas that advanced the data analysis and imaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarimetry as a Probe of Magnetic Fields in AGN Jets)
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8 pages, 1880 KiB  
Article
High-Frequency Polarization Variability from Active Galactic Nuclei
by Iván Martí-Vidal and Ciriaco Goddi
Galaxies 2021, 9(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9030051 - 15 Jul 2021
Viewed by 2495
Abstract
The linear polarization of non-thermal emission encodes information about the structure of the magnetic fields, either from the region where the emission is produced (i.e., the intrinsic polarization angle) and/or from the screens of magnetized plasma that may be located on its way [...] Read more.
The linear polarization of non-thermal emission encodes information about the structure of the magnetic fields, either from the region where the emission is produced (i.e., the intrinsic polarization angle) and/or from the screens of magnetized plasma that may be located on its way towards Earth (i.e., the effect of Faraday rotation). In addition, the variability timescale of the polarized emission, or its Faraday rotation, can be used to estimate the size of the region where the emission (or the Faraday rotation) originates. The observation of polarized emission from active galactic nuclei (AGN) and, in particular, its time evolution, also provides information about the critical role that magnetic fields may play in the process of jet launching and propagation. In this paper, we review some recent results about polarization variability from the cores of AGN jets, including observations at high spatial resolutions and/or at high radio frequencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarimetry as a Probe of Magnetic Fields in AGN Jets)
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30 pages, 5875 KiB  
Article
Features of Secular Changes in the Flux Density of the Cas a Supernova Remnant, from Centimeter to Decameter Wavelengths
by Artem Gorbynov, Artem Sukharev, Michail Ryabov, Vladislavs Bezrukovs and Arturs Orbidans
Galaxies 2021, 9(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9020030 - 4 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2714
Abstract
The purpose of this work is to summarize a large amount of observational data about the secular decrease of Cas A flux in the radio range, as an indicator of physical processes both in the source itself and as a consequence of the [...] Read more.
The purpose of this work is to summarize a large amount of observational data about the secular decrease of Cas A flux in the radio range, as an indicator of physical processes both in the source itself and as a consequence of the influence of the propagation medium. This paper presents results of observations Cas A and Cyg A on radio telescopes of International Radio Astronomy Center (Latvia), and URAN-4 phased array antenna (Institute of Radio Astronomy NAS of Ukraine). According to URAN-4 observations, there were seasonal–diurnal changes in Cas A/Cyg A flux ratios due to the effects of solar activity on the ionosphere, and there may be no secular decrease in Cas A flux density, or a weak tendency to decrease it. The significant influence of the ionosphere makes it difficult to use Cyg A as a reference source in the decameter radio range. In the centimeter radio range, there were episodic intra-day variations at the level 8–10% of Cas A averaged flux. Additionally, in the period January–February 2021, Cas A flux was about 1.7 times that of Cyg A. Taking into account the observed complex type of secular decrease in Cas A flux against the background of changes in space weather variations, further observations of Cas A were planned at radio observatories in Latvia and Ukraine. Full article
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28 pages, 19436 KiB  
Article
Modeling of Spiral Structure in a Multi-Component Milky Way-Like Galaxy
by Sergey Khrapov, Alexander Khoperskov and Vladimir Korchagin
Galaxies 2021, 9(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9020029 - 28 Apr 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4196
Abstract
Using recent observational data, we construct a set of multi-component equilibrium models of the disk of a Milky Way-like galaxy. The disk dynamics are studied using collisionless-gaseous numerical simulations, based on the joined integration of the equations of motion for the collision-less particles [...] Read more.
Using recent observational data, we construct a set of multi-component equilibrium models of the disk of a Milky Way-like galaxy. The disk dynamics are studied using collisionless-gaseous numerical simulations, based on the joined integration of the equations of motion for the collision-less particles using direct integration of gravitational interaction and the gaseous SPH-particles. We find that after approximately one Gyr, a prominent central bar is formed having a semi-axis length of about three kpc, together with a multi-armed spiral pattern represented by a superposition of m= 2-, 3-, and 4-armed spirals. The spiral structure and the bar exist for at least 3 Gyr in our simulations. The existence of the Milky Way bar imposes limitations on the density distributions in the subsystems of the Milky Way galaxy. We find that a bar does not form if the radial scale length of the density distribution in the disk exceeds 2.6 kpc. As expected, the bar formation is also suppressed by a compact massive stellar bulge. We also demonstrate that the maximum value in the rotation curve of the disk of the Milky Way galaxy, as found in its central regions, is explained by non-circular motion due to the presence of a bar and its orientation relative to an observer. Full article
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15 pages, 299 KiB  
Review
Eclipsing Systems with Pulsating Components (Types β Cep, δ Sct, γ Dor or Red Giant) in the Era of High-Accuracy Space Data
by Patricia Lampens
Galaxies 2021, 9(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9020028 - 28 Apr 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2567
Abstract
Eclipsing systems are essential objects for understanding the properties of stars and stellar systems. Eclipsing systems with pulsating components are furthermore advantageous because they provide accurate constraints on the component properties, as well as a complementary method for pulsation mode determination, crucial for [...] Read more.
Eclipsing systems are essential objects for understanding the properties of stars and stellar systems. Eclipsing systems with pulsating components are furthermore advantageous because they provide accurate constraints on the component properties, as well as a complementary method for pulsation mode determination, crucial for precise asteroseismology. The outcome of space missions aiming at delivering high-accuracy light curves for many thousands of stars in search of planetary systems has also generated new insights in the field of variable stars and revived the interest of binary systems in general. The detection of eclipsing systems with pulsating components has particularly benefitted from this, and progress in this field is growing fast. In this review, we showcase some of the recent results obtained from studies of eclipsing systems with pulsating components based on data acquired by the space missions Kepler or TESS. We consider different system configurations including semi-detached eclipsing binaries in (near-)circular orbits, a (near-)circular and non-synchronized eclipsing binary with a chemically peculiar component, eclipsing binaries showing the heartbeat phenomenon, as well as detached, eccentric double-lined systems. All display one or more pulsating component(s). Among the great variety of known classes of pulsating stars, we discuss unevolved or slightly evolved pulsators of spectral type B, A or F and red giants with solar-like oscillations. Some systems exhibit additional phenomena such as tidal effects, angular momentum transfer, (occasional) mass transfer between the components and/or magnetic activity. How these phenomena and the orbital changes affect the different types of pulsations excited in one or more components, offers a new window of opportunity to better understand the physics of pulsations. Full article
14 pages, 382 KiB  
Review
Radio Constraints of Dark Matter: A Review and Some Future Perspectives
by Man Ho Chan
Galaxies 2021, 9(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9010011 - 28 Jan 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3245
Abstract
In the past few decades, many studies have analyzed the data of gamma-rays, X-rays, radio waves, electrons, positrons, anti-protons, and neutrinos to search for the signal of dark matter annihilation. In particular, analyzing radio data has been one of the most important and [...] Read more.
In the past few decades, many studies have analyzed the data of gamma-rays, X-rays, radio waves, electrons, positrons, anti-protons, and neutrinos to search for the signal of dark matter annihilation. In particular, analyzing radio data has been one of the most important and effective ways to constrain dark matter. In this article, we review the physics and the theoretical framework of using radio data to constrain annihilating dark matter. We also review some important radio constraints of annihilating dark matter and discuss the future perspectives of using radio detection to reveal the nature of dark matter. Full article
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9 pages, 261 KiB  
Article
Powerful Jets from Radiatively Efficient Disks, a Decades-Old Unresolved Problem in High Energy Astrophysics
by Chandra B. Singh, David Garofalo and Benjamin Lang
Galaxies 2021, 9(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9010010 - 26 Jan 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2934
Abstract
The discovery of 3C 273 in 1963, and the emergence of the Kerr solution shortly thereafter, precipitated the current era in astrophysics focused on using black holes to explain active galactic nuclei (AGN). But while partial success was achieved in separately explaining the [...] Read more.
The discovery of 3C 273 in 1963, and the emergence of the Kerr solution shortly thereafter, precipitated the current era in astrophysics focused on using black holes to explain active galactic nuclei (AGN). But while partial success was achieved in separately explaining the bright nuclei of some AGN via thin disks, as well as powerful jets with thick disks, the combination of both powerful jets in an AGN with a bright nucleus, such as in 3C 273, remained elusive. Although numerical simulations have taken center stage in the last 25 years, they have struggled to produce the conditions that explain them. This is because radiatively efficient disks have proved a challenge to simulate. Radio quasars have thus been the least understood objects in high energy astrophysics. But recent simulations have begun to change this. We explore this milestone in light of scale-invariance and show that transitory jets, possibly related to the jets seen in these recent simulations, as some have proposed, cannot explain radio quasars. We then provide a road map for a resolution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Understanding of Accretion and Ejection around Black Holes)
14 pages, 2424 KiB  
Article
A Statistical Estimation of the Occurrence of Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Milky Way Galaxy
by Xiang Cai, Jonathan H. Jiang, Kristen A. Fahy and Yuk L. Yung
Galaxies 2021, 9(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies9010005 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 10987
Abstract
In the field of astrobiology, the precise location, prevalence, and age of potential extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) have not been explicitly explored. Here, we address these inquiries using an empirical galactic simulation model to analyze the spatial–temporal variations and the prevalence of potential ETI [...] Read more.
In the field of astrobiology, the precise location, prevalence, and age of potential extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) have not been explicitly explored. Here, we address these inquiries using an empirical galactic simulation model to analyze the spatial–temporal variations and the prevalence of potential ETI within the Galaxy. This model estimates the occurrence of ETI, providing guidance on where to look for intelligent life in the Search for ETI (SETI) with a set of criteria, including well-established astrophysical properties of the Milky Way. Further, typically overlooked factors such as the process of abiogenesis, different evolutionary timescales, and potential self-annihilation are incorporated to explore the growth propensity of ETI. We examine three major parameters: (1) the likelihood rate of abiogenesis (λA); (2) evolutionary timescales (Tevo); and (3) probability of self-annihilation of complex life (Pann). We found Pann to be the most influential parameter determining the quantity and age of galactic intelligent life. Our model simulation also identified a peak location for ETI at an annular region approximately 4 kpc from the galactic center around 8 billion years (Gyrs), with complex life decreasing temporally and spatially from the peak point, asserting a high likelihood of intelligent life in the galactic inner disk. The simulated age distributions also suggest that most of the intelligent life in our galaxy are young, thus making observation or detection difficult. Full article
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13 pages, 512 KiB  
Article
Mean-Field Dynamo Model in Anisotropic Uniform Turbulent Flow with Short-Time Correlations
by E. V. Yushkov, R. Allahverdiyev and D. D. Sokoloff
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030068 - 19 Sep 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2756
Abstract
The mean-field model is one of the basic models of the dynamo theory, which describes the magnetic field generation in a turbulent astrophysical plasma. The first mean-field equations were obtained by Steenbeck, Krause and Rädler for two-scale turbulence under isotropy and uniformity assumptions. [...] Read more.
The mean-field model is one of the basic models of the dynamo theory, which describes the magnetic field generation in a turbulent astrophysical plasma. The first mean-field equations were obtained by Steenbeck, Krause and Rädler for two-scale turbulence under isotropy and uniformity assumptions. In this article we develop the path integral approach to obtain mean-field equations for a short-correlated random velocity field in anisotropic streams. By this model we analyse effects of anisotropy and show the relation between dynamo growth and anisotropic tensors of helicity/turbulent diffusivity. Considering particular examples and comparing results with isotropic cases we demonstrate several mean-field effects: super-exponential growth at initial times, complex dependence of harmonics growth on the helicity tensor structure, when generation is possible for near-zero component or near-zero helicity trace, increase of the averaged magnetic field inclined to the initial current density that leads to effective Lorentz back-reaction and violation of force-free conditions. Full article
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15 pages, 304 KiB  
Article
X-ray Flux and Spectral Variability of the TeV Blazars Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304
by Alok C. Gupta
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030064 - 4 Sep 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2866
Abstract
We reviewed X-ray flux and spectral variability properties studied to date by various X-ray satellites for Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304, which are TeV emitting blazars. Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304 are the most X-ray luminous blazars in the northern and southern hemispheres, [...] Read more.
We reviewed X-ray flux and spectral variability properties studied to date by various X-ray satellites for Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304, which are TeV emitting blazars. Mrk 421 and PKS 2155-304 are the most X-ray luminous blazars in the northern and southern hemispheres, respectively. Blazars show flux and spectral variabilities in the complete electromagnetic spectrum on diverse timescales ranging from a few minutes to hours, days, weeks, months and even several years. The flux and spectral variability on different timescales can be used to constrain the size of the emitting region, estimate the super massive black hole mass, find the dominant emission mechanism in the close vicinity of the super massive black hole, search for quasi-periodic oscillations in time series data and several other physical parameters of blazars. Flux and spectral variability is also a dominant tool to explain jet as well as disk emission from blazars at different epochs of observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue X-Ray Flux and Spectral Variability of Blazars)
29 pages, 3592 KiB  
Review
UV Spectroscopy of Massive Stars
by D. John Hillier
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030060 - 12 Aug 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5755
Abstract
We present a review of UV observations of massive stars and their analysis. We discuss O stars, luminous blue variables, and Wolf–Rayet stars. Because of their effective temperature, the UV (9123200 Å) provides invaluable diagnostics not available at other wavebands. [...] Read more.
We present a review of UV observations of massive stars and their analysis. We discuss O stars, luminous blue variables, and Wolf–Rayet stars. Because of their effective temperature, the UV (9123200 Å) provides invaluable diagnostics not available at other wavebands. Enormous progress has been made in interpreting and analysing UV data, but much work remains. To facilitate the review, we provide a brief discussion on the structure of stellar winds, and on the different techniques used to model and interpret UV spectra. We discuss several important results that have arisen from UV studies including weak-wind stars and the importance of clumping and porosity. We also discuss errors in determining wind terminal velocities and mass-loss rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Star Formation in the Ultraviolet)
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25 pages, 1861 KiB  
Article
Parameters of the Supernova-Driven Interstellar Turbulence
by Luke Chamandy and Anvar Shukurov
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030056 - 31 Jul 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3101
Abstract
Galactic dynamo models take as input certain parameters of the interstellar turbulence, most essentially the correlation time τ, root-mean-square turbulent speed u, and correlation scale l. However, these quantities are difficult, or, in the case of τ, impossible, to [...] Read more.
Galactic dynamo models take as input certain parameters of the interstellar turbulence, most essentially the correlation time τ, root-mean-square turbulent speed u, and correlation scale l. However, these quantities are difficult, or, in the case of τ, impossible, to directly observe, and theorists have mostly relied on order of magnitude estimates. Here we present an analytic model to derive these quantities in terms of a small set of more accessible parameters. In our model, turbulence is assumed to be driven concurrently by isolated supernovae (SNe) and superbubbles (SBs), but clustering of SNe to form SBs can be turned off if desired, which reduces the number of model parameters by about half. In general, we find that isolated SNe and SBs can inject comparable amounts of turbulent energy into the interstellar medium, but SBs do so less efficiently. This results in rather low overall conversion rates of SN energy into turbulent energy of ∼1–3%. The results obtained for l, u and τ for model parameter values representative of the Solar neighbourhood are consistent with those determined from direct numerical simulations. Our analytic model can be combined with existing dynamo models to predict more directly the magnetic field properties for nearby galaxies or for statistical populations of galaxies in cosmological models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)
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12 pages, 1400 KiB  
Article
NuSTAR View of TeV Blazar Mrk 501
by Ashwani Pandey
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030055 - 25 Jul 2020
Viewed by 2906
Abstract
We report the results of flux and spectral variability studies of all seven Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) observations of TeV γ-ray emitting blazar Markarian (or Mrk) 501. We found strong evidence of intraday variability in 3–79 keV X-ray light curves [...] Read more.
We report the results of flux and spectral variability studies of all seven Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) observations of TeV γ-ray emitting blazar Markarian (or Mrk) 501. We found strong evidence of intraday variability in 3–79 keV X-ray light curves (LCs) of Mrk 501 during four out of these seven observations. We examined spectral variability using a model-independent hardness-ratio analysis and found a general “harder-when-brighter” behaviour in two observations. We also investigated the nature of 3–79 keV X-ray spectra of TeV blazar Mrk 501 and found that five out of seven spectra are well described by the curved log-parabola models with photon indices (at 10 keV) α 2.12–2.32 and a curvature β 0.15–0.28. The two other spectra are somewhat better represented by simple power-law models with photon indices 2.70 and 2.75. We briefly discuss available physical models to explain our results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue X-Ray Flux and Spectral Variability of Blazars)
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2 pages, 137 KiB  
Editorial
Debate on the Physics of Galactic Rotation and the Existence of Dark Matter
by Anne M. Hofmeister and Robert E. Criss
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030054 - 15 Jul 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3519
Abstract
This Special Issue was motivated by the disparate explanations of galactic dynamics promulgated by different philosophical camps [...] Full article
37 pages, 555 KiB  
Article
Magnetism Science with the Square Kilometre Array
by George Heald, Sui Ann Mao, Valentina Vacca, Takuya Akahori, Ancor Damas-Segovia, B. M. Gaensler, Matthias Hoeft, Ivan Agudo, Aritra Basu, Rainer Beck, Mark Birkinshaw, Annalisa Bonafede, Tyler L. Bourke, Andrea Bracco, Ettore Carretti, Luigina Feretti, J. M. Girart, Federica Govoni, James A. Green, JinLin Han, Marijke Haverkorn, Cathy Horellou, Melanie Johnston-Hollitt, Roland Kothes, Tom Landecker, Błażej Nikiel-Wroczyński, Shane P. O’Sullivan, Marco Padovani, Frédérick Poidevin, Luke Pratley, Marco Regis, Christopher John Riseley, Tim Robishaw, Lawrence Rudnick, Charlotte Sobey, Jeroen M. Stil, Xiaohui Sun, Sharanya Sur, A. Russ Taylor, Alec Thomson, Cameron L. Van Eck, Franco Vazza, Jennifer L. West and the SKA Magnetism Science Working Groupadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Galaxies 2020, 8(3), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8030053 - 6 Jul 2020
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 5960
Abstract
The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) will answer fundamental questions about the origin, evolution, properties, and influence of magnetic fields throughout the Universe. Magnetic fields can illuminate and influence phenomena as diverse as star formation, galactic dynamics, fast radio bursts, active galactic nuclei, large-scale [...] Read more.
The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) will answer fundamental questions about the origin, evolution, properties, and influence of magnetic fields throughout the Universe. Magnetic fields can illuminate and influence phenomena as diverse as star formation, galactic dynamics, fast radio bursts, active galactic nuclei, large-scale structure, and dark matter annihilation. Preparations for the SKA are swiftly continuing worldwide, and the community is making tremendous observational progress in the field of cosmic magnetism using data from a powerful international suite of SKA pathfinder and precursor telescopes. In this contribution, we revisit community plans for magnetism research using the SKA, in light of these recent rapid developments. We focus in particular on the impact that new radio telescope instrumentation is generating, thus advancing our understanding of key SKA magnetism science areas, as well as the new techniques that are required for processing and interpreting the data. We discuss these recent developments in the context of the ultimate scientific goals for the SKA era. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)
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7 pages, 1113 KiB  
Article
The Microvariable Activity of BL Lacertae
by Alberto C. Sadun, Masoud Asadi-Zeydabadi, Lauren Hindman and J. Ward Moody
Galaxies 2020, 8(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies8010011 - 7 Feb 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2593
Abstract
We report on seven nights of optical observation taken over a two-week period, and the resultant analysis of the intermediate-frequency peaked BL Lac object (IBL), BL Lac itself, at redshift z = 0.069. The microvariable behavior can be confirmed over the course of [...] Read more.
We report on seven nights of optical observation taken over a two-week period, and the resultant analysis of the intermediate-frequency peaked BL Lac object (IBL), BL Lac itself, at redshift z = 0.069. The microvariable behavior can be confirmed over the course of minutes for each night. A relativistic beaming model was used in our analysis, to infer changes to the line of sight angles for the motion of the different relativistic components. This model has very few free parameters. The light curves we generated show both high and moderate frequency cadence to the variable behavior of BL Lac itself, in addition to the well documented long-term variability. Full article
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21 pages, 2842 KiB  
Review
An Introduction to Particle Acceleration in Shearing Flows
by Frank M. Rieger
Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030078 - 10 Sep 2019
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 4566
Abstract
Shear flows are ubiquitously present in space and astrophysical plasmas. This paper highlights the central idea of the non-thermal acceleration of charged particles in shearing flows and reviews some of the recent developments. Topics include the acceleration of charged particles by microscopic instabilities [...] Read more.
Shear flows are ubiquitously present in space and astrophysical plasmas. This paper highlights the central idea of the non-thermal acceleration of charged particles in shearing flows and reviews some of the recent developments. Topics include the acceleration of charged particles by microscopic instabilities in collisionless relativistic shear flows, Fermi-type particle acceleration in macroscopic, gradual and non-gradual shear flows, as well as shear particle acceleration by large-scale velocity turbulence. When put in the context of jetted astrophysical sources such as Active Galactic Nuclei, the results illustrate a variety of means beyond conventional diffusive shock acceleration by which power-law like particle distributions might be generated. This suggests that relativistic shear flows can account for efficient in-situ acceleration of energetic electrons and be of relevance for the production of extreme cosmic rays. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Acceleration Processes in Astrophysical Jets)
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67 pages, 920 KiB  
Review
The Hunt for Primordial Interactions in the Large-Scale Structures of the Universe
by Matteo Biagetti
Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030071 - 8 Aug 2019
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 3974
Abstract
The understanding of the primordial mechanism that seeded the cosmic structures we observe today in the sky is one of the major goals in cosmology. The leading paradigm for such a mechanism is provided by the inflationary scenario, a period of violent accelerated [...] Read more.
The understanding of the primordial mechanism that seeded the cosmic structures we observe today in the sky is one of the major goals in cosmology. The leading paradigm for such a mechanism is provided by the inflationary scenario, a period of violent accelerated expansion in the very early stages of evolution of the universe. While our current knowledge of the physics of inflation is limited to phenomenological models which fit observations, an exquisite understanding of the particle content and interactions taking place during inflation would provide breakthroughs in our understanding of fundamental physics at high energies. In this review, we summarize recent theoretical progress in the modeling of the imprint of primordial interactions in the large-scale structures of the universe. We focus specifically on the effects of such interactions on the statistical distribution of dark-matter halos, providing a consistent treatment of the steps required to connect the correlations generated among fields during inflation all the way to the late-time correlations of halos. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Dark Haloes to Visible Galaxies)
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35 pages, 7420 KiB  
Review
Dissipative Processes and Their Role in the Evolution of Radio Galaxies
by Manel Perucho
Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030070 - 31 Jul 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4018
Abstract
Particle acceleration in relativistic jets, to very high levels of energy, occurs at the expense of the dissipation of magnetic or kinetic energy. Therefore, understanding the processes that can trigger this dissipation is key to the characterization of the energy budgets and particle [...] Read more.
Particle acceleration in relativistic jets, to very high levels of energy, occurs at the expense of the dissipation of magnetic or kinetic energy. Therefore, understanding the processes that can trigger this dissipation is key to the characterization of the energy budgets and particle acceleration mechanisms in action in active galaxies. Instabilities and entrainment are two obvious candidates to trigger dissipation. On the one hand, supersonic, relativistic flows threaded by helical fields, as expected from the standard formation models of jets in supermassive black-holes, are unstable to a series of magnetohydrodynamical instabilities, such as the Kelvin–Helmholtz, current-driven, or possibly the pressure-driven instabilities. Furthermore, in the case of expanding jets, the Rayleigh–Taylor and centrifugal instabilities may also develop. With all these destabilizing processes in action, a natural question is to ask how can some jets keep their collimated structure along hundreds of kiloparsecs. On the other hand, the interaction of the jet with stars and clouds of gas that cross the flow in their orbits around the galactic centers provides another scenario in which kinetic energy can be efficiently converted into internal energy and particles can be accelerated to non-thermal energies. In this contribution, I review the conditions under which these processes occur and their role both in jet evolution and propagation and energy dissipation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)
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30 pages, 1694 KiB  
Review
Halo Substructure Boosts to the Signatures of Dark Matter Annihilation
by Shin’ichiro Ando, Tomoaki Ishiyama and Nagisa Hiroshima
Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030068 - 1 Jul 2019
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 4770
Abstract
The presence of dark matter substructure will boost the signatures of dark matter annihilation. We review recent progress on estimates of this subhalo boost factor—a ratio of the luminosity from annihilation in the subhalos to that originating the smooth component—based on both numerical [...] Read more.
The presence of dark matter substructure will boost the signatures of dark matter annihilation. We review recent progress on estimates of this subhalo boost factor—a ratio of the luminosity from annihilation in the subhalos to that originating the smooth component—based on both numerical N-body simulations and semi-analytic modelings. Since subhalos of all the scales, ranging from the Earth mass (as expected, e.g., the supersymmetric neutralino, a prime candidate for cold dark matter) to galaxies or larger, give substantial contribution to the annihilation rate, it is essential to understand subhalo properties over a large dynamic range of more than twenty orders of magnitude in masses. Even though numerical simulations give the most accurate assessment in resolved regimes, extrapolating the subhalo properties down in sub-grid scales comes with great uncertainties—a straightforward extrapolation yields a very large amount of the subhalo boost factor of ≳100 for galaxy-size halos. Physically motivated theoretical models based on analytic prescriptions such as the extended Press-Schechter formalism and tidal stripping modeling, which are well tested against the simulation results, predict a more modest boost of order unity for the galaxy-size halos. Giving an accurate assessment of the boost factor is essential for indirect dark matter searches and thus, having models calibrated at large ranges of host masses and redshifts, is strongly urged upon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)
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17 pages, 1080 KiB  
Article
Remnants of Galactic Subhalos and Their Impact on Indirect Dark-Matter Searches
by Martin Stref, Thomas Lacroix and Julien Lavalle
Galaxies 2019, 7(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7020065 - 4 Jun 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3478
Abstract
Dark-matter subhalos, predicted in large numbers in the cold-dark-matter scenario, should have an impact on dark-matter-particle searches. Recent results show that tidal disruption of these objects in computer simulations is overefficient due to numerical artifacts and resolution effects. Accounting for these results, we [...] Read more.
Dark-matter subhalos, predicted in large numbers in the cold-dark-matter scenario, should have an impact on dark-matter-particle searches. Recent results show that tidal disruption of these objects in computer simulations is overefficient due to numerical artifacts and resolution effects. Accounting for these results, we re-estimated the subhalo abundance in the Milky Way using semianalytical techniques. In particular, we showed that the boost factor for gamma rays and cosmic-ray antiprotons is increased by roughly a factor of two. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)
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25 pages, 4533 KiB  
Review
Practical Modeling of Large-Scale Galactic Magnetic Fields: Status and Prospects
by Tess R. Jaffe
Galaxies 2019, 7(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7020052 - 28 Apr 2019
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5510
Abstract
This is a review of the status of efforts to model the large-scale Galactic magnetic field (GMF). Though important for a variety of astrophysical processes, the GMF remains poorly understood despite some interesting new tracers being used in the field. Though we still [...] Read more.
This is a review of the status of efforts to model the large-scale Galactic magnetic field (GMF). Though important for a variety of astrophysical processes, the GMF remains poorly understood despite some interesting new tracers being used in the field. Though we still have too many models that might fit the data, this is not to say that the field has not developed in the last few years. In particular, surveys of polarized dust have given us a new observable that is complementary to the more traditional radio tracers, and a variety of other new tracers and related measurements are becoming available to improve current modeling. This paper reviews: the tracers available; the models that have been studied; what has been learned so far; what the caveats and outstanding issues are; and one opinion of where the most promising future avenues of exploration lie. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)
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19 pages, 401 KiB  
Review
From Primordial Seed Magnetic Fields to the Galactic Dynamo
by Kandaswamy Subramanian
Galaxies 2019, 7(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7020047 - 14 Apr 2019
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5015
Abstract
The origin and maintenance of coherent magnetic fields in the Universe is reviewed with an emphasis on the possible challenges that arise in their theoretical understanding. We begin with the interesting possibility that magnetic fields originated at some level from the early universe. [...] Read more.
The origin and maintenance of coherent magnetic fields in the Universe is reviewed with an emphasis on the possible challenges that arise in their theoretical understanding. We begin with the interesting possibility that magnetic fields originated at some level from the early universe. This could be during inflation, the electroweak, or the quark-hadron phase transitions. These mechanisms can give rise to fields which could be strong, but often with much smaller coherence scales than galactic scales. Their subsequent turbulent decay decreases their strength but increases their coherence. We then turn to astrophysical batteries which can generate seed magnetic fields. Here the coherence scale can be large, but the field strength is generally very small. These seed fields need to be further amplified and maintained by a dynamo to explain observed magnetic fields in galaxies. Basic ideas behind both small and large-scale turbulent dynamos are outlined. The small-scale dynamo may help to understand the first magnetization of young galaxies, while the large-scale dynamo is important for the generation of fields with scales larger than the stirring scale, as observed in nearby disk galaxies. The current theoretical challenges that turbulent dynamos encounter and their possible resolution are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)
20 pages, 3037 KiB  
Review
Revisiting the Equipartition Assumption in Star-Forming Galaxies
by Amit Seta and Rainer Beck
Galaxies 2019, 7(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7020045 - 8 Apr 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4784
Abstract
Energy equipartition between cosmic rays and magnetic fields is often assumed to infer magnetic field properties from the synchrotron observations of star-forming galaxies. However, there is no compelling physical reason to expect the same. We aim to explore the validity of the energy [...] Read more.
Energy equipartition between cosmic rays and magnetic fields is often assumed to infer magnetic field properties from the synchrotron observations of star-forming galaxies. However, there is no compelling physical reason to expect the same. We aim to explore the validity of the energy equipartition assumption. After describing popular arguments in favour of the assumption, we first discuss observational results that support it at large scales and how certain observations show significant deviations from equipartition at scales smaller than ≈ 1 kpc , probably related to the propagation length of the cosmic rays. Then, we test the energy equipartition assumption using test-particle and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations. From the results of the simulations, we find that the energy equipartition assumption is not valid at scales smaller than the driving scale of the ISM turbulence (≈ 100 pc in spiral galaxies), which can be regarded as the lower limit for the scale beyond which equipartition is valid. We suggest that one must be aware of the dynamical scales in the system before assuming energy equipartition to extract magnetic field information from synchrotron observations. Finally, we present ideas for future observations and simulations to investigate in more detail under which conditions the equipartition assumption is valid or not. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)
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20 pages, 13460 KiB  
Article
Relativistic Jet Simulations of the Weibel Instability in the Slab Model to Cylindrical Jets with Helical Magnetic Fields
by Ken-Ichi Nishikawa, Yosuke Mizuno, Jose L. Gómez, Ioana Duţan, Athina Meli, Jacek Niemiec, Oleh Kobzar, Martin Pohl, Helene Sol, Nicholas MacDonald and Dieter H. Hartmann
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010029 - 30 Jan 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5216
Abstract
The particle-in-cell (PIC) method was developed to investigate microscopic phenomena, and with the advances in computing power, newly developed codes have been used for several fields, such as astrophysical, magnetospheric, and solar plasmas. PIC applications have grown extensively, with large computing powers available [...] Read more.
The particle-in-cell (PIC) method was developed to investigate microscopic phenomena, and with the advances in computing power, newly developed codes have been used for several fields, such as astrophysical, magnetospheric, and solar plasmas. PIC applications have grown extensively, with large computing powers available on supercomputers such as Pleiades and Blue Waters in the US. For astrophysical plasma research, PIC methods have been utilized for several topics, such as reconnection, pulsar dynamics, non-relativistic shocks, relativistic shocks, and relativistic jets. PIC simulations of relativistic jets have been reviewed with emphasis placed on the physics involved in the simulations. This review summarizes PIC simulations, starting with the Weibel instability in slab models of jets, and then focuses on global jet evolution in helical magnetic field geometry. In particular, we address kinetic Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities and mushroom instabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cosmic Plasmas and Electromagnetic Phenomena)
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17 pages, 1122 KiB  
Review
Gamma-Ray Astrophysics in the Time Domain
by Frank M. Rieger
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010028 - 29 Jan 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4500
Abstract
The last few years have seen gamma-ray astronomy maturing and advancing in the field of time-domain astronomy, utilizing source variability on timescales over many orders of magnitudes, from a decade down to a few minutes and shorter, depending on the source. This review [...] Read more.
The last few years have seen gamma-ray astronomy maturing and advancing in the field of time-domain astronomy, utilizing source variability on timescales over many orders of magnitudes, from a decade down to a few minutes and shorter, depending on the source. This review focuses on some of the key science issues and conceptual developments concerning the timing characteristics of active galactic nuclei (AGN) at gamma-ray energies. It highlights the relevance of adequate statistical tools and illustrates that the developments in the gamma-ray domain bear the potential to fundamentally deepen our understanding of the nature of the emitting source and the link between accretion dynamics, black hole physics, and jet ejection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)
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19 pages, 1434 KiB  
Review
Radio Galaxies—The TeV Challenge
by Bindu Rani
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010023 - 22 Jan 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5343
Abstract
Over the past decade, our knowledge of the γ -ray sky has been revolutionized by ground- and space-based observatories by detecting photons up to several hundreds of tera-electron volt (TeV) energies. A major population of the γ -ray bright objects are active galactic [...] Read more.
Over the past decade, our knowledge of the γ -ray sky has been revolutionized by ground- and space-based observatories by detecting photons up to several hundreds of tera-electron volt (TeV) energies. A major population of the γ -ray bright objects are active galactic nuclei (AGN) with their relativistic jets pointed along our line-of-sight. Gamma-ray emission is also detected from nearby misaligned AGN such as radio galaxies. While the TeV-detected radio galaxies ( T e V R a d ) only form a small fraction of the γ -ray detected AGN, their multi-wavelength study offers a unique opportunity to probe and pinpoint the high-energy emission processes and sites. Even in the absence of substantial Doppler beaming T e V R a d are extremely bright objects in the TeV sky (luminosities detected up to 10 45 erg s 1 ), and exhibit flux variations on timescales shorter than the event-horizon scales (flux doubling timescale less than 5 min). Thanks to the recent advancement in the imaging capabilities of high-resolution radio interferometry (millimeter very long baseline interferometry, mm-VLBI), one can probe the scales down to less than 10 gravitational radii in T e V R a d , making it possible not only to test jet launching models but also to pinpoint the high-energy emission sites and to unravel the emission mechanisms. This review provides an overview of the high-energy observations of T e V R a d with a focus on the emitting sites and radiation processes. Some recent approaches in simulations are also sketched. Observations by the near-future facilities like Cherenkov Telescope Array, short millimeter-VLBI, and high-energy polarimetry instruments will be crucial for discriminating the competing high-energy emission models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)
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31 pages, 8173 KiB  
Review
Numerical Simulations of Jets from Active Galactic Nuclei
by José-María Martí
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010024 - 22 Jan 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9281
Abstract
Numerical simulations have been playing a crucial role in the understanding of jets from active galactic nuclei (AGN) since the advent of the first theoretical models for the inflation of giant double radio galaxies by continuous injection in the late 1970s. In the [...] Read more.
Numerical simulations have been playing a crucial role in the understanding of jets from active galactic nuclei (AGN) since the advent of the first theoretical models for the inflation of giant double radio galaxies by continuous injection in the late 1970s. In the almost four decades of numerical jet research, the complexity and physical detail of simulations, based mainly on a hydrodynamical/magneto-hydrodynamical description of the jet plasma, have been increasing with the pace of the advance in theoretical models, computational tools and numerical methods. The present review summarizes the status of the numerical simulations of jets from AGNs, from the formation region in the neighborhood of the supermassive central black hole up to the impact point well beyond the galactic scales. Special attention is paid to discuss the achievements of present simulations in interpreting the phenomenology of jets as well as their current limitations and challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cosmic Plasmas and Electromagnetic Phenomena)
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37 pages, 12791 KiB  
Article
Progress in Multi-Wavelength and Multi-Messenger Observations of Blazars and Theoretical Challenges
by Markus Böttcher
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010020 - 18 Jan 2019
Cited by 106 | Viewed by 7047
Abstract
This review provides an overview of recent advances in multi-wavelength and multi-messenger observations of blazars, the current status of theoretical models for blazar emission, and prospects for future facilities. The discussion of observational results will focus on advances made possible through the Fermi [...] Read more.
This review provides an overview of recent advances in multi-wavelength and multi-messenger observations of blazars, the current status of theoretical models for blazar emission, and prospects for future facilities. The discussion of observational results will focus on advances made possible through the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope and ground-based gamma-ray observatories (H.E.S.S., MAGIC, VERITAS), as well as the recent first evidence for a blazar being a source of IceCube neutrinos. The main focus of this review will be the discussion of our current theoretical understanding of blazar multi-wavelength and multi-messenger emission, in the spectral, time, and polarization domains. Future progress will be expected in particular through the development of the first X-ray polarimeter, IXPE, and the installation of the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), both expected to become operational in the early to mid 2020s. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cosmic Plasmas and Electromagnetic Phenomena)
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8 pages, 465 KiB  
Article
AMON Multimessenger Alerts: Past and Future
by Hugo Alberto Ayala Solares
Galaxies 2019, 7(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7010019 - 16 Jan 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3445
Abstract
The Astrophysical Multimessenger Observatory Network (AMON) was founded to tie the world’s high-energy and multimessenger observatories into a single network, with the purpose to enable the discovering of multimessenger sources, to exploit these sources for purposes of astrophysics, fundamental physics, and cosmology, and [...] Read more.
The Astrophysical Multimessenger Observatory Network (AMON) was founded to tie the world’s high-energy and multimessenger observatories into a single network, with the purpose to enable the discovering of multimessenger sources, to exploit these sources for purposes of astrophysics, fundamental physics, and cosmology, and to explore archival datasets for evidence of multimessenger source populations. Contributions of AMON to date include the GCN prompt alerts for likely-cosmic neutrinos, multiple follow-up campaigns for likely-cosmic neutrinos including the IceCube-170922A event, and several archival searches for transient and flaring γ + ν and ν + CR multimessenger sources. Given the new dawn of multimessenger astronomy recently realized with the detection of the neutron binary star merger and the possible γ + ν coincidence detection from the blazar TXS0506+056, in 2019, we are planning to commission several multimessenger alert streams, including GW + γ and high-energy γ + ν coincidence alerts. We will briefly summarize the current status of AMON and review our monitoring plans for high-energy and multimessenger AMON alerts during what promises to be a very exciting year for multimessenger astrophysics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)
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24 pages, 2562 KiB  
Review
A Review of Recent Observations of Galactic Winds Driven by Star Formation
by David S. N. Rupke
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040138 - 9 Dec 2018
Cited by 92 | Viewed by 5521
Abstract
Galaxy-scale outflows of gas, or galactic winds (GWs), driven by energy from star formation are a pivotal mechanism for regulation of star formation in the current model of galaxy evolution. Observations of this phenomenon have proliferated through the wide application of old techniques [...] Read more.
Galaxy-scale outflows of gas, or galactic winds (GWs), driven by energy from star formation are a pivotal mechanism for regulation of star formation in the current model of galaxy evolution. Observations of this phenomenon have proliferated through the wide application of old techniques on large samples of galaxies, the development of new methods, and advances in telescopes and instrumentation. I review the diverse portfolio of direct observations of stellar GWs since 2010. Maturing measurements of the ionized and neutral gas properties of nearby winds have been joined by exciting new probes of molecular gas and dust. Low-z techniques have been newly applied in large numbers at high z. The explosion of optical and near-infrared 3D imaging spectroscopy has revealed the complex, multiphase structure of nearby GWs. These observations point to stellar GWs being a common feature of rapidly star-forming galaxies throughout at least the second half of cosmic history, and suggest that scaling relationships between outflow and galaxy properties persist over this period. The simple model of a modest-velocity, biconical flow of multiphase gas and dust perpendicular to galaxy disks continues to be a robust descriptor of these flows. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theory and Observations of Galactic Outflows)
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11 pages, 412 KiB  
Review
Flux Distribution of Gamma-Ray Emission in Blazars: The Example of Mrk 501
by Carlo Romoli, Nachiketa Chakraborty, Daniela Dorner, Andrew M. Taylor and Michael Blank
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040135 - 6 Dec 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3969
Abstract
Flux distribution is an important tool to understand the variability processes in active galactic nuclei. We now have available a great deal of observational evidences pointing towards the presence of log-normal components in the high energy light curves, and different models have been [...] Read more.
Flux distribution is an important tool to understand the variability processes in active galactic nuclei. We now have available a great deal of observational evidences pointing towards the presence of log-normal components in the high energy light curves, and different models have been proposed to explain these data. Here, we collect some of the recent developments on this topic using the well-known blazar Mrk 501 as example of complex and interesting aspects coming from its flux distribution in different energy ranges and at different timescales. The observational data we refer to are those collected in a complementary manner by Fermi-LAT over multiple years, and by the First G-APD Cherenkov Telescope (FACT) telescope and the H.E.S.S. array in correspondence of the bright flare of June 2014. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)
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16 pages, 2357 KiB  
Article
The Rate of Short-Duration Gamma-Ray Bursts in the Local Universe
by Soheb Mandhai, Nial Tanvir, Gavin Lamb, Andrew Levan and David Tsang
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040130 - 30 Nov 2018
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5633
Abstract
Following the faint gamma-ray burst, GRB 170817A, coincident with a gravitational wave-detected binary neutron star merger at d 40 Mpc, we consider the constraints on a local population of faint short duration GRBs (defined here broadly as T 90 < 4 s). [...] Read more.
Following the faint gamma-ray burst, GRB 170817A, coincident with a gravitational wave-detected binary neutron star merger at d 40 Mpc, we consider the constraints on a local population of faint short duration GRBs (defined here broadly as T 90 < 4 s). We review proposed low-redshift short-GRBs and consider statistical limits on a d 200 Mpc population using Swift/Burst Alert Telescope (BAT), Fermi/Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM), and Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO) Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) GRBs. Swift/BAT short-GRBs give an upper limit for the all-sky rate of < 4 y 1 at d < 200 Mpc, corresponding to < 5% of SGRBs. Cross-correlation of selected CGRO/BATSE and Fermi/GBM GRBs with d < 100 Mpc galaxy positions returns a weaker constraint of 12 y 1 . A separate search for correlations due to SGR giant flares in nearby ( d < 11 Mpc) galaxies finds an upper limit of < 3 y 1 . Our analysis suggests that GRB 170817A-like events are likely to be rare in existing SGRB catalogues. The best candidate for an analogue remains GRB 050906, where the Swift/BAT location was consistent with the galaxy IC 0327 at d 132 Mpc. If binary neutron star merger rates are at the high end of current estimates, then our results imply that at most a few percent will be accompanied by detectable gamma-ray flashes in the forthcoming LIGO/Virgo science runs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)
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15 pages, 6064 KiB  
Review
Fermi: Monitoring the Gamma-Ray Universe
by David J. Thompson
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040117 - 16 Nov 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4413
Abstract
Since 2008, the Large Area Telescope and the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope have been monitoring the entire sky at energies from about 8 keV to more than 1 TeV. Photon-level data and high-level data products are made publicly [...] Read more.
Since 2008, the Large Area Telescope and the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope have been monitoring the entire sky at energies from about 8 keV to more than 1 TeV. Photon-level data and high-level data products are made publicly available in near-real time, and efforts continue to improve the response time. This long-duration, all-sky monitoring has enabled a broad range of science, from atmospheric phenomena on Earth to signals from high-redshift sources. The Fermi instrument teams have worked closely with multiwavelength and multi-messenger observers and theorists to maximize the scientific return from the observatory, and they look forward to continued cooperative efforts as Fermi moves into its second decade of operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)
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25 pages, 3110 KiB  
Review
Radio Galaxies at VHE Energies
by Frank M. Rieger and Amir Levinson
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040116 - 15 Nov 2018
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 4694
Abstract
Radio Galaxies have by now emerged as a new γ-ray emitting source class on the extragalactic sky. Given their remarkable observed characteristics, such as unusual gamma-ray spectra or ultrafast VHE variability, they represent unique examples to probe the nature and physics of [...] Read more.
Radio Galaxies have by now emerged as a new γ-ray emitting source class on the extragalactic sky. Given their remarkable observed characteristics, such as unusual gamma-ray spectra or ultrafast VHE variability, they represent unique examples to probe the nature and physics of active galactic nuclei (AGN) in general. This review provides a compact summary of their observed characteristics at very high γ-ray energies (VHE; greater than 100 GeV) along with a discussion of their possible physics implications. A particular focus is given to a concise overview of fundamental concepts concerning the origin of variable VHE emission, including recent developments in black hole gap physics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)
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46 pages, 2465 KiB  
Review
A Review of the Theory of Galactic Winds Driven by Stellar Feedback
by Dong Zhang
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040114 - 1 Nov 2018
Cited by 82 | Viewed by 7003
Abstract
Galactic winds from star-forming galaxies are crucial to the process of galaxy formation and evolution, regulating star formation, shaping the stellar mass function and the mass-metallicity relation, and enriching the intergalactic medium with metals. Galactic winds associated with stellar feedback may be driven [...] Read more.
Galactic winds from star-forming galaxies are crucial to the process of galaxy formation and evolution, regulating star formation, shaping the stellar mass function and the mass-metallicity relation, and enriching the intergalactic medium with metals. Galactic winds associated with stellar feedback may be driven by overlapping supernova explosions, radiation pressure of starlight on dust grains, and cosmic rays. Galactic winds are multiphase, the growing observations of emission and absorption of cold molecular, cool atomic, ionized warm and hot outflowing gas in a large number of galaxies have not been completely understood. In this review article, I summarize the possible mechanisms associated with stars to launch galactic winds, and review the multidimensional hydrodynamic, radiation hydrodynamic and magnetohydrodynamic simulations of winds based on various algorithms. I also briefly discuss the theoretical challenges and possible future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theory and Observations of Galactic Outflows)
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7 pages, 1132 KiB  
Article
Planetary Nebulae Shaped by Common Envelope Evolution
by Adam Frank, Zhuo Chen, Thomas Reichardt, Orsola De Marco, Eric Blackman and Jason Nordhaus
Galaxies 2018, 6(4), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6040113 - 26 Oct 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3858
Abstract
The morphologies of planetary nebula have long been believed to be due to wind shaping processes in which a “fast wind” from the central star impacts a previously ejected envelope. It is assumed that asymmetries existing in the “slow wind” envelope would lead [...] Read more.
The morphologies of planetary nebula have long been believed to be due to wind shaping processes in which a “fast wind” from the central star impacts a previously ejected envelope. It is assumed that asymmetries existing in the “slow wind” envelope would lead to inertial confinement, shaping the resulting interacting wind flow. We present new results demonstrating the effectiveness of Common Envelope Evolution (CEE) at producing aspherical envelopes which, when impinged upon by a spherical fast stellar wind, produce highly bipolar, jet-like outflows. We have run two simple cases using the output of a single PHANTOM SPH CEE simulation. Our work uses the Adaptive Mesh Refinement code AstroBEAR to track the interaction of the fast wind and CEE ejecta allows us to follow the morphological evolution of the outflow lobes at high resolution in 3-D. Our two models bracket low and high momentum output fast winds. We find the interaction leads to highly collimated bipolar outflows. In addition, the bipolar morphology depends on the fast wind momentum injection rate. With this dependence comes the initiation of significant symmetry breaking between the top and bottom bipolar lobes. Our simulations, though simplified, confirm the long-standing belief that CEE can plan a major role in PPN and PN shaping. These simulations are intended as an initial exploration of the post-CE/PPN flow patterns that can be expected from central source outflows and CE ejecta. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Asymmetric Planetary Nebulae VII)
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4 pages, 195 KiB  
Article
Recent Development of the Atomic Line List
by Peter A. M. Van Hoof
Galaxies 2018, 6(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6020063 - 8 Jun 2018
Cited by 75 | Viewed by 4066
Abstract
The Atomic Line List is an online database of wavelengths and transition probabilities of atomic lines. It is primarily set up as a tool to help identify unknown spectral features. This paper briefly describes the web interface, how the line list is constructed, [...] Read more.
The Atomic Line List is an online database of wavelengths and transition probabilities of atomic lines. It is primarily set up as a tool to help identify unknown spectral features. This paper briefly describes the web interface, how the line list is constructed, and what development is currently being undertaken for the next release. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atomic and Molecular Data Needs for Astronomy and Astrophysics)
18 pages, 2125 KiB  
Review
Multi-Wavelength Observations and Modeling of Loop I
by Yuri Shchekinov
Galaxies 2018, 6(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6020062 - 7 Jun 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3500
Abstract
The article aims to overview the origin and current dynamical state of a giant structure on the northern galactic sky—the radio Loop I extending from ≈ 45 to ≈ + 45 in longitudes and up to ≈ 80 in [...] Read more.
The article aims to overview the origin and current dynamical state of a giant structure on the northern galactic sky—the radio Loop I extending from ≈ 45 to ≈ + 45 in longitudes and up to ≈ 80 in latitudes over the Galactic center (GC). The main issue addressed here is a description of possible sources of mass and energy able to build up the Loop I and associated structures seen in X-ray, 21 cm, far infrared (FIR), and maintain them on long timescales. This region of the sky is highly crowded, such that contaminations from many projected structures can be tangled, and not always current direct observations look sufficient to disentangle them. At such conditions indirect arguments based on analysis of underlying star formation (SF) rate, morphological features in radio, X-ray and FIR may be important for understanding the origin of Loop I. Simple estimates show that the observed rather weak SF rate is able to create and maintain Loop I, and under certain circumstances can provide the observed east-west asymmetry. However, an explanation of an apparent coexistence of morphologically similar HI and FIR filaments close to Loop I is challenging, indicating that most likely they may belong to the foreground. Recently discovered absorptions in diffuse interstellar bands seem to confirm this picture. Full article
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13 pages, 395 KiB  
Article
Applying MOG to Lensing: Einstein Rings, Abell 520 and the Bullet Cluster
by John W. Moffat, Sohrab Rahvar and Viktor T. Toth
Galaxies 2018, 6(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6020043 - 2 Apr 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4456
Abstract
We investigate gravitational lensing in the context of the MOG modified theory of gravity. Using a formulation of the theory with no adjustable or fitted parameters, we present the MOG equations of motion for slow, nonrelativistic test particles and for ultrarelativistic test particles, [...] Read more.
We investigate gravitational lensing in the context of the MOG modified theory of gravity. Using a formulation of the theory with no adjustable or fitted parameters, we present the MOG equations of motion for slow, nonrelativistic test particles and for ultrarelativistic test particles, such as rays of light. We demonstrate how the MOG prediction for the bending of light can be applied to astronomical observations. Our investigation first focuses on a small set of strong lensing observations where the properties of the lensing objects are found to be consistent with the predictions of the theory. We also present an analysis of the colliding clusters 1E0657-558 (known also as the Bullet Cluster) and Abell 520; in both cases, the predictions of the MOG theory are in good agreement with observation. Full article
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19 pages, 1151 KiB  
Article
The Train Wreck Cluster Abell 520 and the Bullet Cluster 1E0657-558 in a Generalized Theory of Gravitation
by Norman Israel and John Moffat
Galaxies 2018, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6020041 - 26 Mar 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6474
Abstract
A major hurdle for modified gravity theories is to explain the dynamics of galaxy clusters. A case is made for a generalized gravitational theory called Scalar-Tensor-Vector-Gravity (STVG) or MOG (Modified Gravity) to explain merging cluster dynamics. The paper presents the results of a [...] Read more.
A major hurdle for modified gravity theories is to explain the dynamics of galaxy clusters. A case is made for a generalized gravitational theory called Scalar-Tensor-Vector-Gravity (STVG) or MOG (Modified Gravity) to explain merging cluster dynamics. The paper presents the results of a re-analysis of the Bullet Cluster, as well as an analysis of the Train Wreck Cluster in the weak gravitational field limit without dark matter. The King- β model is used to fit the X-ray data of both clusters, and the κ -maps are computed using the parameters of this fit. The amount of galaxies in the clusters is estimated by subtracting the predicted κ -map from the κ -map data. The estimate for the Bullet Cluster is that 14.1 % of the cluster is composed of galaxies. For the Train Wreck Cluster, if the Jee et al. data are used, 25.7 % of the cluster is composed of galaxies. The baryon matter in the galaxies and the enhanced strength of gravitation in MOG shift the lensing peaks, making them offset from the gas. The work demonstrates that this generalized gravitational theory can explain merging cluster dynamics without dark matter. Full article
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20 pages, 5956 KiB  
Review
X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Observations of the Fermi Bubbles and NPS/Loop I Structures
by Jun Kataoka, Yoshiaki Sofue, Yoshiyuki Inoue, Masahiro Akita, Shinya Nakashima and Tomonori Totani
Galaxies 2018, 6(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6010027 - 26 Feb 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7601
Abstract
The Fermi bubbles were possibly created by large injections of energy into the Galactic Center (GC), either by an active galactic nucleus (AGN) or by nuclear starburst more than ~10 Myr ago. However, the origin of the diffuse gamma-ray emission associated with Loop [...] Read more.
The Fermi bubbles were possibly created by large injections of energy into the Galactic Center (GC), either by an active galactic nucleus (AGN) or by nuclear starburst more than ~10 Myr ago. However, the origin of the diffuse gamma-ray emission associated with Loop I, a radio continuum loop spanning across 100° on the sky, is still being debated. The northern-most part of Loop I, known as the North Polar Spur (NPS), is the brightest arm and is even clearly visible in the ROSAT X-ray sky map. In this paper, we present a comprehensive review on the X-ray observations of the Fermi bubbles and their possible association with the NPS and Loop I structures. Using uniform analysis of archival Suzaku and Swift data, we show that X-ray plasma with kT~0.3 keV and low metal abundance (Z~0.2 Z) is ubiquitous in both the bubbles and Loop I and is naturally interpreted as weakly shock-heated Galactic halo gas. However, the observed asymmetry of the X-ray-emitting gas above and below the GC has still not been resolved; it cannot be fully explained by the inclination of the axis of the Fermi bubbles to the Galactic disk normal. We argue that the NPS and Loop I may be asymmetric remnants of a large explosion that occurred before the event that created the Fermi bubbles, and that the soft gamma-ray emission from Loop I may be due to either π0 decay of accelerated protons or electron bremsstrahlung. Full article
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7 pages, 2281 KiB  
Article
Unitary Issues in Some Higher Derivative Field Theories
by Manuel Asorey, Leslaw Rachwal and Ilya Shapiro
Galaxies 2018, 6(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6010023 - 14 Feb 2018
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3415
Abstract
We analyze the unitarity properties of higher derivative quantum field theories which are free of ghosts and ultraviolet singularities. We point out that in spite of the absence of ghosts most of these theories are not unitary. This result confirms the difficulties of [...] Read more.
We analyze the unitarity properties of higher derivative quantum field theories which are free of ghosts and ultraviolet singularities. We point out that in spite of the absence of ghosts most of these theories are not unitary. This result confirms the difficulties of finding a consistent quantum field theory of quantum gravity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cosmology and the Quantum Vacuum)
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8 pages, 333 KiB  
Article
Ultra Light Axionic Dark Matter: Galactic Halos and Implications for Observations with Pulsar Timing Arrays
by Ivan De Martino, Tom Broadhurst, S.-H. Henry Tye, Tzihong Chiueh, Hsi-Yu Schive and Ruth Lazkoz
Galaxies 2018, 6(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6010010 - 16 Jan 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3912
Abstract
The cold dark matter (CDM) paradigm successfully explains the cosmic structure over an enormous span of redshifts. However, it fails when probing the innermost regions of dark matter halos and the properties of the Milky Way’s dwarf galaxy satellites. Moreover, the lack of [...] Read more.
The cold dark matter (CDM) paradigm successfully explains the cosmic structure over an enormous span of redshifts. However, it fails when probing the innermost regions of dark matter halos and the properties of the Milky Way’s dwarf galaxy satellites. Moreover, the lack of experimental detection of Weakly Interacting Massive Particle (WIMP) favors alternative candidates such as light axionic dark matter that naturally arise in string theory. Cosmological N-body simulations have shown that axionic dark matter forms a solitonic core of size of ≃150 pc in the innermost region of the galactic halos. The oscillating scalar field associated to the axionic dark matter halo produces an oscillating gravitational potential that induces a time dilation of the pulse arrival time of ≃400 ns/(m B /10 22 eV) for pulsar within such a solitonic core. Over the whole galaxy, the averaged predicted signal may be detectable with current and forthcoming pulsar timing array telescopes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cosmology and the Quantum Vacuum)
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8 pages, 1976 KiB  
Article
The Variable Rotation Measure Distribution in 3C 273 on Parsec Scales
by John Wardle
Galaxies 2018, 6(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6010005 - 5 Jan 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4531
Abstract
We briefly review how opacity affects the observed polarization in synchrotron emitting jets. We show some new multi-frequency observations of 3C 273 made with the VLBA in 1999–2000, which add significantly to the available rotation measure (RM) observations of this source. Our findings [...] Read more.
We briefly review how opacity affects the observed polarization in synchrotron emitting jets. We show some new multi-frequency observations of 3C 273 made with the VLBA in 1999–2000, which add significantly to the available rotation measure (RM) observations of this source. Our findings can be summarized as follows: (1) The transverse gradient in RM is amply confirmed. This implies a toroidal component to the magnetic field, which in turn requires a current of 1017–1018 A flowing down the jet. (2) The net magnetic field in the jet is longitudinal; however, whether or not the longitudinal component is vector-ordered is an open question. (3) The RM distribution is variable on timescales of months to years. We attribute this to the motion of superluminal components behind a turbulent Faraday screen that surrounds the jet. (4) Finally, we suggest that Faraday rotation measurements at higher resolution and higher frequencies, with the Event Horizon Telescope, may enable useful constraints to be placed on the accretion rate onto the central black hole. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polarised Emission from Astrophysical Jets)
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14 pages, 1281 KiB  
Article
Microvariability in BL Lacertae: “Zooming” into the Innermost Blazar Regions
by Gopal Bhatta and James R. Webb
Galaxies 2018, 6(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies6010002 - 3 Jan 2018
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4278
Abstract
In this work, we present the results of our multi-band microvariability study of the famous blazar BL Lac. We performed microvariablity observations of the source in the optical VRI bands for four nights in 2016. We studied the intranight flux and spectral variability [...] Read more.
In this work, we present the results of our multi-band microvariability study of the famous blazar BL Lac. We performed microvariablity observations of the source in the optical VRI bands for four nights in 2016. We studied the intranight flux and spectral variability of the source in detail with an objective to characterize microvariability in the blazars, a frequently observed phenomenon in blazars. The results show that the source often displays a fast flux variability with an amplitude as large as ~0.2 magnitude within a few hours, and that the color variability in the similar time scales can be characterized as “bluer-when-brighter” trend. We also observed markedly curved optical spectrum during one of the nights. Furthermore, the correlation between multi-band emission shows that in general the emission in all the bands are highly correlated; and in one of the nights V band emission was found to lead the I band emission by ~13 min. The search for characteristic timescale using z-transformed auto-correlation function and the structure function analyses reveals characteristic timescale of ~50 min in one of the R band observations. We try to explain the observed results in the context of the passage of shock waves through the relativistic outflows in blazars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microvariability of Blazars)
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