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Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments
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Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 116617

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Angela Lausch

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Permoserstr.15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
Interests: remote sensing; functional traits; biodiversity; data mining
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Jan Bumberger

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Monitoring and Exploration Technologies, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Permoserstr.15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
Interests: scalable sensor network technologies; calibration and validation of remote sensing data; high frequency electromagnetic and optical spectral monitoring; data management; signal processing of multiparametric and cross-domain data; data-driven information extraction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Natascha Oppelt

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department for Geography, Remote Sensing & Environmental Modelling, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel (CAU), 24118 Kiel, Germany
Interests: remote sensing of deep and shallow water; monitoring of shallow benthis coverage; coupling of earth observation data and modelling approaches; time series nalysis and sensor fusion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Karsten Rinke

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Department of Lake Research, Brückstrasse 3a, 39114 Magdeburg, Germany
Interests: water quality of lakes and reservoirs; eutrophication and algal blooms; reservoir operation; water quality management; modelling of lake ecosystems; climate change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This issue should address two interwoven and inseparable complex issues, i.e., land-use intensity in catchments and water quality and ecosystem health in the associated aquatic ecosystems.

Changing land use and intensity, human pressures or the stages involved in growing food are defined as the extent of land that is used. Clearance and homogenization of land and vegetation, the planting of trees, the drainage of wetlands or the sealing of surfaces, the implementation of organic fertilisers, the (in)direct application of pesticides, fungicides, human waste, such as pharmaceuticals or contamination with plastics, oils, salts or waste heat.

Land use intensity is also an indicator of the degree of land development in an area, and reflects the effects and environmental impacts generated by that development. Land-use intensity in catchment areas has a substantial effect on aquatic ecosystems. There are only a handful of indicators that measure land-use intensity and no indicators for understanding their complex interactions with water quality and ecosystem state.

Good water quality and sufficient water quantity are necessary for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals for human and ecosystem health, food security and water security. Therefore, it is of major concern that water pollution has worsened since the 1990s in the majority of inland waters and rivers in all regions of the world. It is imperative that actions to protect and restore water quality are linked to the efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Post 2015 Development Agenda. Eutrophication of inland waters, essentially driven by nutrient pollution from urban areas or agriculture, is a world-wide problem leading to deteriorating water quality, harmful algal blooms, and severe problems in drinking water production. Severe pathogen pollution already affects around one third of all river stretches in Latin America, Africa and Asia. In addition to the health risks from contaminated drinking water, many people are also at risk of disease by using polluted surface waters for bathing, cleaning clothes and for other household activities. The number of rural people at risk in this way may extend to hundreds of millions globally.

It is therefore the goal of this Special Issue to record water quality and ecosystem health using remote sensing and its methodological requirements and approaches, as well as investigating critical terrestrial parameters in the catchment using remote sensing and in situ measurements.

To compile existing research using remote sensing techniques in the field of water body/catchment mapping, we would like to invite you to submit articles on recent research with respect to the following topics:

  • Exploring the relationships between bio-optical properties and biogeochemical parameters of inland water systems
  • New developments in assessment and monitoring of water quality and status indicators of inland waters (trophic state, harmful algal blooms) using remote sensing
  • Linking remote sensing of inland waters with water resources management and modelling
  • Linkage RS and in situ data
  • Linkage air and space-borne RS and  wireless sensor networks
  • Standardization of water RS monitoring
  • Assessment of catchment characteristics using remote sensing in the context of water quality and aquatic ecosystem research
  • Remote sensing for quantifying land use change and intensity in catchments
  • Modelling the interactions of land-surface structures in catchments, land-use change/intensity, water quality and aquatic ecosystem health
  • Semantic Web for linkage catchment management and water remote sensing informations

Privat Dozent Dr. Angela Lausch
Dr. Jan Bumberger
Prof. Dr. Natascha Oppelt
Dr. Karsten Rinke
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Water quality
  • Bio-optical modelling
  • Atmospheric correction
  • Optical complexity
  • In-situ–RS coupling
  • Validation and Calibration strategies
  • Land-use-intensity
  • Catchment structure and management
  • Aquatic wireless sensor networks
  • Standardization
  • Semantic web in water and catchment cycle

Published Papers (22 papers)

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16 pages, 17744 KiB  
Article
Meridional Changes in Satellite Chlorophyll and Fluorescence in Optically-Complex Coastal Waters of Northern Patagonia
by Sebastián I. Vásquez, María Belén de la Torre, Gonzalo S. Saldías and Aldo Montecinos
Remote Sens. 2021, 13(5), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13051026 - 09 Mar 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2514
Abstract
Northern Patagonia is one of the largest estuarine systems worldwide. It is characterized by complex geography, including islands, peninsulas, channels, and fjords. Here, the Inner Sea of Chiloé (ISC) is the largest estuarine system extending about 230 km in the meridional direction. Phytoplankton’s [...] Read more.
Northern Patagonia is one of the largest estuarine systems worldwide. It is characterized by complex geography, including islands, peninsulas, channels, and fjords. Here, the Inner Sea of Chiloé (ISC) is the largest estuarine system extending about 230 km in the meridional direction. Phytoplankton’s long-term dynamics and the main physical drivers of their variability are not well understood yet. Time-space fluctuations of Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and Chlorophyll fluorescence (nFLH) within the ISC and their association with meteorological and oceanographic processes were analyzed using high resolution (1000 m) satellite data (2003–2019). Our results revealed a meridional Chl-a and nFLH gradient along the ISC, with higher concentrations north of the Desertores islands where the topography promotes a semi-closed system with estuarine characteristics yearlong. Satellite Chl-a and nFLH were characterized by asynchronous seasonal cycles (nFLH peaks in fall) that differed from the southern ISC where the maximum Chl-a and nFLH occurs in spring-summer. The adjacent coastal ocean influences the southern ISC, and thus, the Chl-a and nFLH variability correlated well with the seasonal variation of meridional winds. The northern ISC was clearly influenced by river discharges, which can bias the Chl-a retrievals, decoupling the annual cycles of Chl-a and nFLH. In situ data from a buoy in Seno Reloncaví reaffirmed this bias in satellite Chl-a and a higher correlation with nFLH, by which the construction of a local Chl-a algorithm for northern Patagonia is essential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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24 pages, 3249 KiB  
Article
Classification of Australian Waterbodies across a Wide Range of Optical Water Types
by Elizabeth J. Botha, Janet M. Anstee, Stephen Sagar, Eric Lehmann and Thais A. G. Medeiros
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(18), 3018; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12183018 - 16 Sep 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3537
Abstract
Baseline determination and operational continental scale monitoring of water quality are required for reporting on marine and inland water progress to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). This study aims to improve our knowledge of the optical complexity of Australian waters. A workflow was developed [...] Read more.
Baseline determination and operational continental scale monitoring of water quality are required for reporting on marine and inland water progress to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). This study aims to improve our knowledge of the optical complexity of Australian waters. A workflow was developed to cluster the modelled spectral response of a range of in situ bio-optical observations collected in Australian coastal and continental waters into distinct optical water types (OWTs). Following clustering and merging, most of the modelled spectra and modelled specific inherent optical properties (SIOP) sets were clustered in 11 OWTs, ranging from clear blue coastal waters to very turbid inland lakes. The resulting OWTs were used to classify Sentinel-2 MSI surface reflectance observations extracted over relatively permanent water bodies in three drainage regions in Eastern Australia. The satellite data classification demonstrated clear limnological and seasonal differences in water types within and between the drainage divisions congruent with general limnological, topographical, and climatological factors. Locations of unclassified observations can be used to inform where in situ bio-optical data acquisition may be targeted to capture a more comprehensive characterization of all Australian waters. This can contribute to global initiatives like the SDGs and increases the diversity of natural water in global databases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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23 pages, 12267 KiB  
Article
Diffuse Attenuation of Clear Water Tropical Reservoir: A Remote Sensing Semi-Analytical Approach
by Victor Pedroso Curtarelli, Cláudio Clemente Faria Barbosa, Daniel Andrade Maciel, Rogério Flores Júnior, Felipe Menino Carlos, Evlyn Márcia Leão de Moraes Novo, Marcelo Pedroso Curtarelli and Edson Filisbino Freire da Silva
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(17), 2828; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172828 - 01 Sep 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2847
Abstract
The diffuse attenuation coefficient of downwelling irradiance (Kd) is an essential parameter for inland waters research by remotely sensing the water transparency. Lately, Kd semi-analytical algorithms substituted the empirical algorithms widely employed. The purpose of this research was to [...] Read more.
The diffuse attenuation coefficient of downwelling irradiance (Kd) is an essential parameter for inland waters research by remotely sensing the water transparency. Lately, Kd semi-analytical algorithms substituted the empirical algorithms widely employed. The purpose of this research was to reparametrize a semi-analytical algorithm to estimate Kd and then apply it to a Sentinel-2 MSI time-series (2017–2019) for the Três Marias reservoir, Brazil. The results for the Kd semi-analytical reparametrization achieved good accuracies, reaching mean absolute percentage errors (MAPE) for bands B2, B3 and B4 (492, 560 and 665 nm), lower than 21% when derived from in-situ remote sensing reflectance (Rrs), while for MSI Data, a derived MAPE of 12% and 38% for B2 and B3, respectively. After the application of the algorithm to Sentinel-2 images time-series, seasonal patterns were observed in the results, showing high Kd values at 492 nm during the rainy periods, mainly in the tributary mouths, possibly due to an increase in the surface runoff and inflows and outflow rates in the reservoir watershed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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18 pages, 3282 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 Images for Estimating Chlorophyll-a Concentrations in Lake Chad, Africa
by Willibroad Gabila Buma and Sang-Il Lee
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(15), 2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12152437 - 29 Jul 2020
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7106
Abstract
Much effort has been applied in estimating the concentrations of chlorophyll-a (Chl a) in lakes. The optical complexity and lack of in situ data complicate estimating Chl a in such water bodies. We compared four established satellite reflectance algorithms—the two-band and [...] Read more.
Much effort has been applied in estimating the concentrations of chlorophyll-a (Chl a) in lakes. The optical complexity and lack of in situ data complicate estimating Chl a in such water bodies. We compared four established satellite reflectance algorithms—the two-band and three-band algorithms (2BDA, 3BDA), fluorescence line height (FLH), and normalized difference chlorophyll index (NDCI)—to estimate Chl a concentration in Lake Chad. We evaluated the performance and applicability of Landsat-8 (L8) and Sentinel-2 (S2) images with the four Chl a estimation algorithms. For accuracy, we compared the concentration levels from the four algorithms to those from Worldview-3 (WV3) images. We identified two promising algorithms that could be used alongside L8 and S2 satellite images to monitor Chl a concentrations in Lake Chad. With an averaged R2 of 0.8, the 3BDA and NDCI Chl a algorithms performed accurately with S2 and L8 images. For the S2 and L8 images, 3BDA had the highest performance when compared to the WV3 estimates. We demonstrate the usefulness of sensor images in improving water quality information for areas that are difficult to access or when conventional data are limited. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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27 pages, 15299 KiB  
Article
Spectral and Radiometric Measurement Requirements for Inland, Coastal and Reef Waters
by Peter Gege and Arnold G. Dekker
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(14), 2247; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12142247 - 13 Jul 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
This paper studies the measurement requirements of spectral resolution and radiometric sensitivity to enable the quantitative determination of water constituents and benthic parameters for the majority of optically deep and optically shallow waters on Earth. The spectral and radiometric variability is investigated by [...] Read more.
This paper studies the measurement requirements of spectral resolution and radiometric sensitivity to enable the quantitative determination of water constituents and benthic parameters for the majority of optically deep and optically shallow waters on Earth. The spectral and radiometric variability is investigated by simulating remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) spectra of optically deep water for twelve inland water scenarios representing typical and extreme concentration ranges of phytoplankton, colored dissolved organic matter and non-algal particles. For optically shallow waters, Rrs changes induced by variable water depth are simulated for fourteen bottom substrate types, from lakes to coastal waters and coral reefs. The required radiometric sensitivity is derived for the conditions that the spectral shape of Rrs should be resolvable with a quantization of 100 levels and that measurable reflection differences at at least one wavelength must occur at concentration changes in water constituents of 10% and depth differences of 20 cm. These simulations are also used to derive the optimal spectral resolution and the most sensitive wavelengths. Finally, the Rrs spectra and their changes are converted to radiances and radiance differences in order to derive sensor (noise-equivalent radiance) and measurement requirements (signal-to-noise ratio) at the water surface and at the top of the atmosphere for a range of solar zenith angles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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26 pages, 8260 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Water Quality of Valle de Bravo Reservoir, Mexico, Using Entire Lifespan of MERIS Data and Machine Learning Approaches
by Leonardo F. Arias-Rodriguez, Zheng Duan, Rodrigo Sepúlveda, Sergio I. Martinez-Martinez and Markus Disse
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(10), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12101586 - 16 May 2020
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4707
Abstract
Remote-sensing-based machine learning approaches for water quality parameters estimation, Secchi Disk Depth (SDD) and Turbidity, were developed for the Valle de Bravo reservoir in central Mexico. This waterbody is a multipurpose reservoir, which provides drinking water to the metropolitan area of Mexico City. [...] Read more.
Remote-sensing-based machine learning approaches for water quality parameters estimation, Secchi Disk Depth (SDD) and Turbidity, were developed for the Valle de Bravo reservoir in central Mexico. This waterbody is a multipurpose reservoir, which provides drinking water to the metropolitan area of Mexico City. To reveal the water quality status of inland waters in the last decade, evaluation of MERIS imagery is a substantial approach. This study incorporated in-situ collected measurements across the reservoir and remote sensing reflectance data from the Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS). Machine learning approaches with varying complexities were tested, and the optimal model for SDD and Turbidity was determined. Cross-validation demonstrated that the satellite-based estimates are consistent with the in-situ measurements for both SDD and Turbidity, with R2 values of 0.81 to 0.86 and RMSE of 0.15 m and 0.95 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). The best model was applied to time series of MERIS images to analyze the spatial and temporal variations of the reservoir’s water quality from 2002 to 2012. Derived analysis revealed yearly patterns caused by dry and rainy seasons and several disruptions were identified. The reservoir varied from trophic to intermittent hypertrophic status, while SDD ranged from 0–1.93 m and Turbidity up to 23.70 NTU. Results suggest the effects of drought events in the years 2006 and 2009 on water quality were correlated with water quality detriment. The water quality displayed slow recovery through 2011–2012. This study demonstrates the usefulness of satellite observations for supporting inland water quality monitoring and water management in this region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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21 pages, 6585 KiB  
Article
Recognition of Water Colour Anomaly by Using Hue Angle and Sentinel 2 Image
by Yelong Zhao, Qian Shen, Qian Wang, Fan Yang, Shenglei Wang, Junsheng Li, Fangfang Zhang and Yue Yao
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(4), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12040716 - 21 Feb 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4805
Abstract
As polluted water bodies are often small in area and widely distributed, performing artificial field screening is difficult; however, remote-sensing-based screening has the advantages of being rapid, large-scale, and dynamic. Polluted water bodies often show anomalous water colours, such as black, grey, and [...] Read more.
As polluted water bodies are often small in area and widely distributed, performing artificial field screening is difficult; however, remote-sensing-based screening has the advantages of being rapid, large-scale, and dynamic. Polluted water bodies often show anomalous water colours, such as black, grey, and red. Therefore, the large-scale recognition of suspected polluted water bodies through high-resolution remote-sensing images and water colour can improve the screening efficiency and narrow the screening scope. However, few studies have been conducted on such kinds of water bodies. The hue angle of a water body is a parameter used to describe colour in the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) colour space. Based on the measured data, the water body with a hue angle greater than 230.958° is defined as a water colour anomaly, which is recognised based on the Sentinel-2 image through the threshold set in this study. The results showed that the hue angle of the water body was extracted from the Sentinel-2 image, and the accuracy of the hue angle calculated by the in situ remote-sensing reflectance Rrs (λ) was evaluated, where the root mean square error (RMSE) and mean relative error (MRE) were 4.397° and 1.744%, respectively, proving that this method is feasible. The hue angle was calculated for a water colour anomaly and a general water body in Qiqihar. The water body was regarded as a water colour anomaly when the hue angle was >230.958° and as a general water body when the hue angle was ≤230.958°. High-quality Sentinel-2 images of Qiqihar taken from May 2016 to August 2019 were chosen, and the position of the water body remained unchanged; there was no error or omission, and the hue angle of the water colour anomaly changed obviously, indicating that this method had good stability. Additionally, the method proposed is only suitable for optical deep water, not for optical shallow water. When this method was applied to Xiong’an New Area, the results showed good recognition accuracy, demonstrating good universality of this method. In this study, taking Qiqihar as an example, a surface survey experiment was conducted from October 14 to 15, 2018, and the measured data of six general and four anomalous water sample points were obtained, including water quality terms such as Rrs (λ), transparency, water colour, water temperature, and turbidity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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16 pages, 3774 KiB  
Article
Large-Scale Retrieval of Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter in Northern Lakes Using Sentinel-2 Data
by Enass Said. Al-Kharusi, David E. Tenenbaum, Abdulhakim M. Abdi, Tiit Kutser, Jan Karlsson, Ann-Kristin Bergström and Martin Berggren
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(1), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12010157 - 02 Jan 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5325 | Correction
Abstract
Owing to the significant societal value of inland water resources, there is a need for cost-effective monitoring of water quality on large scales. We tested the suitability of the recently launched Sentinel-2A to monitor a key water quality parameter, coloured dissolved organic matter [...] Read more.
Owing to the significant societal value of inland water resources, there is a need for cost-effective monitoring of water quality on large scales. We tested the suitability of the recently launched Sentinel-2A to monitor a key water quality parameter, coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM), in various types of lakes in northern Sweden. Values of a(420)CDOM (CDOM absorption at 420 nm wavelength) were obtained by analyzing water samples from 46 lakes in five districts across Sweden within an area of approximately 800 km2. We evaluated the relationships between a(420)CDOM and band ratios derived from Sentinel-2A Level-1C and Level-2A products. The band ratios B2/B3 (460 nm/560 nm) and B3/B5 (560 nm/705 nm) showed poor relationships with a(420)CDOM in Level-1C and 2A data both before and after the removal of outliers. However, there was a slightly stronger power relationship between the atmospherically-corrected B3/B4 ratio and a(420)CDOM (R2 = 0.28, n = 46), and this relationship was further improved (R2 = 0.65, n = 41) by removing observations affected by light haze and cirrus clouds. This study covered a wide range of lakes in different landscape settings and demonstrates the broad applicability of a(420)CDOM retrieval algorithms based on the B3/B4 ratio derived from Sentinel-2A. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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18 pages, 7297 KiB  
Article
Effect of Satellite Temporal Resolution on Long-Term Suspended Particulate Matter in Inland Lakes
by Zhigang Cao, Ronghua Ma, Hongtao Duan, Kun Xue and Ming Shen
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(23), 2785; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11232785 - 26 Nov 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3716
Abstract
The temporal resolution of satellite determines how well remote sensing products represent changes in the lake environments and influences the practical applications by end-users. Here, a resampling method was used to reproduce the suspended particulate matter (SPM) dataset in 43 large lakes (>50 [...] Read more.
The temporal resolution of satellite determines how well remote sensing products represent changes in the lake environments and influences the practical applications by end-users. Here, a resampling method was used to reproduce the suspended particulate matter (SPM) dataset in 43 large lakes (>50 km2) on the eastern China plain during 2003–2017 at different temporal resolutions using MODIS Aqua (MODISA) based on Google Earth Engine platform, then to address the impact of temporal resolution on the long-term SPM dataset. Differences between the MODISA-derived and reproduced SPM dataset at longer temporal resolution were higher in the areas with large water dynamics. The spatial and temporal distributions of the differences were driven by unfavorable observation environments during satellite overpasses such as high cloud cover, and rapid changes in water quality, such as water inundation, algae blooms, and macrophytes. Furthermore, the annual mean difference in SPM ranged from 5–10% when the temporal difference was less than 10 d, and the differences in summer and autumn were higher than that of other seasons and surpassed 20% when the temporal resolution was more than 16 d. To assure that difference were less than 10% for long-term satellite-derived SPM datasets, the minimal requirement of temporal resolution should be within 5 d for most of the inland lakes and 3 d for lakes with large changes in water quality. This research can be used to not only evaluate the reliability of historically remote sensing products but also provide a reference for planning field campaigns and applying of high spatial resolution satellite missions to monitor aquatic systems in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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25 pages, 6150 KiB  
Article
Flood Mapping with Convolutional Neural Networks Using Spatio-Contextual Pixel Information
by Chandrama Sarker, Luis Mejias, Frederic Maire and Alan Woodley
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(19), 2331; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11192331 - 08 Oct 2019
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7595
Abstract
Remote sensing technology in recent years has been regarded the most important source to provide substantial information for delineating the flooding extent to the disaster management authority. There have been numerous studies proposing mathematical or statistical classification models for flood mapping. However, conventional [...] Read more.
Remote sensing technology in recent years has been regarded the most important source to provide substantial information for delineating the flooding extent to the disaster management authority. There have been numerous studies proposing mathematical or statistical classification models for flood mapping. However, conventional pixel-wise classifications methods rely on the exact match of the spectral signature to label the target pixel. In this study, we propose a fully convolutional neural networks (F-CNNs) classification model to map the flooding extent from Landsat satellite images. We utilised the spatial information from the neighbouring area of target pixel in classification. A total of 64 different models were generated and trained with a variable neighbourhood size of training samples and number of learnable filters. The training results revealed that the model trained with 3 × 3 neighbourhood sized training samples and with 32 convolutional filters achieved the best performance out of the experiments. A new set of different Landsat images covering flooded areas across Australia were used to evaluate the classification performance of the model. A comparison of our proposed classification model to the conventional support vector machines (SVM) classification model shows that the F-CNNs model was able to detect flooded areas more efficiently than the SVM classification model. For example, the F-CNNs model achieved a maximum precision rate (true positives) of 76.7% compared to 45.27% for SVM classification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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14 pages, 1990 KiB  
Article
Water-Quality Classification of Inland Lakes Using Landsat8 Images by Convolutional Neural Networks
by Fangling Pu, Chujiang Ding, Zeyi Chao, Yue Yu and Xin Xu
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(14), 1674; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11141674 - 14 Jul 2019
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 7743
Abstract
Water-quality monitoring of inland lakes is essential for freshwater-resource protection. In situ water-quality measurements and ratings are accurate but high costs limit their usage. Water-quality monitoring using remote sensing has shown to be cost-effective. However, the nonoptically active parameters that mainly determine water-quality [...] Read more.
Water-quality monitoring of inland lakes is essential for freshwater-resource protection. In situ water-quality measurements and ratings are accurate but high costs limit their usage. Water-quality monitoring using remote sensing has shown to be cost-effective. However, the nonoptically active parameters that mainly determine water-quality levels in China are difficult to estimate because of their weak optical characteristics and lack of explicit correlation between remote-sensing images and parameters. To address the problems, a convolutional neural network (CNN) with hierarchical structure was designed to represent the relationship between Landsat8 images and in situ water-quality levels. A transfer-learning strategy in the CNN model was introduced to deal with the lack of in situ measurement data. After the CNN model was trained by spatially and temporally matched Landsat8 images and in situ water-quality data that were collected from official websites, the surface quality of the whole water body could be classified. We tested the CNN model at the Erhai and Chaohu lakes in China, respectively. The experiment results demonstrate that the CNN model outperformed widely used machine-learning methods. The trained model at Erhai Lake can be used for the water-quality classification of Chaohu Lake. The introduced CNN model and the water-quality classification method could cover the whole lake with low costs. The proposed method has potential in inland-lake monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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21 pages, 10540 KiB  
Article
High Temporal Resolution Monitoring of Suspended Matter Changes from GOCI Measurements in Lake Taihu
by Yifan Xu, Boqiang Qin, Guangwei Zhu, Yunlin Zhang, Kun Shi, Yunmei Li, Yong Shi and Liangang Chen
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(8), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080985 - 25 Apr 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3749
Abstract
The Tiaoxi River is the main source of water for Lake Taihu and can result in plumes in the lake after heavy precipitation events. These plumes have played a crucial role in the water quality changes within the lake. High temporal resolution GOCI [...] Read more.
The Tiaoxi River is the main source of water for Lake Taihu and can result in plumes in the lake after heavy precipitation events. These plumes have played a crucial role in the water quality changes within the lake. High temporal resolution GOCI (Geostationary Ocean Color Imager) data were used to study the spatial distribution of the total suspended matter concentration in Lake Taihu after heavy precipitation events in the Tiaoxi River Basin via an empirical model. The plumes were analyzed after two heavy precipitation events in 2011 and 2013 using 16 GOCI images, which indicated that the Tiaoxi River had a great influence on the spatial distributions of total suspended matter and algal blooms. It was concluded that the main factors affecting the plumes in the Tiaoxi River were precipitation intensity, runoff, and total suspended matter concentration. Human activity, such as sand excavation also played a crucial role in sediment discharge. The results of this study demonstrate that the visualization of GOCI data makes it possible to use remote sensing technology to continuously monitor an inland water environment on an hourly scale, which is of great significance for studying the diffusion and evolution of river plumes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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17 pages, 61620 KiB  
Article
Shrinkage of Nepal’s Second Largest Lake (Phewa Tal) Due to Watershed Degradation and Increased Sediment Influx
by C. Scott Watson, Jeffrey S. Kargel, Dhananjay Regmi, Summer Rupper, Joshua M. Maurer and Alina Karki
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(4), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11040444 - 21 Feb 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 13374
Abstract
Phewa Lake is an environmental and socio-economic asset to Nepal and the city of Pokhara. However, the lake area has decreased in recent decades due to sediment influx. The rate of this decline and the areal evolution of Phewa Lake due to artificial [...] Read more.
Phewa Lake is an environmental and socio-economic asset to Nepal and the city of Pokhara. However, the lake area has decreased in recent decades due to sediment influx. The rate of this decline and the areal evolution of Phewa Lake due to artificial damming and sedimentation is disputed in the literature due to the lack of a historical time series. In this paper, we present an analysis of the lake’s evolution from 1926 to 2018 and model the 50-year trajectory of shrinkage. The area of Phewa Lake expanded from 2.44 ± 1.02 km2 in 1926 to a maximum of 4.61 ± 0.07 km2 in 1961. However, the lake area change was poorly constrained prior to a 1957–1958 map. The contemporary lake area was 4.02 ± 0.07 km2 in April 2018, and expands seasonally by ~0.18 km2 due to the summer monsoon. We found no evidence to support a lake area of 10 km2 in 1956–1957, despite frequent reporting of this value in the literature. Based on the rate of areal decline and sediment influx, we estimate the lake will lose 80% of its storage capacity in the next 110–347 years, which will affect recreational use, agricultural irrigation, fishing, and a one-megawatt hydroelectric power facility. Mitigation of lake shrinkage will require addressing landslide activity and sediment transport in the watershed, as well as urban expansion along the shores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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22 pages, 2858 KiB  
Article
Indirect Assessment of Sedimentation in Hydropower Dams Using MODIS Remote Sensing Images
by Rita de Cássia Condé, Jean-Michel Martinez, Marco Aurélio Pessotto, Raúl Villar, Gérard Cochonneau, Raoul Henry, Walszon Lopes and Marcos Nogueira
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(3), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030314 - 05 Feb 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5172
Abstract
In this study, we used moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite images to quantify the sedimentation processes in a cascade of six hydropower dams along a 700-km transect in the Paranapanema River in Brazil. Turbidity field measurement acquired over 10 years were used [...] Read more.
In this study, we used moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite images to quantify the sedimentation processes in a cascade of six hydropower dams along a 700-km transect in the Paranapanema River in Brazil. Turbidity field measurement acquired over 10 years were used to calibrate a turbidity retrieval algorithm based on MODIS surface reflectance products. An independent field dataset was used to validate the remote sensing estimates showing fine accuracy (RMSE of 9.5 NTU, r = 0.75, N = 138). By processing 13 years of MODIS images since 2000, we showed that satellite data can provide robust turbidity monitoring over the entire transect and can identify extreme sediment discharge events occurring on daily to annual scales. We retrieved the decrease in the water turbidity as a function of distance within each reservoir that is related to sedimentation processes. The remote sensing-retrieved turbidity decrease within the reservoirs ranged from 2 to 62% making possible to infer the reservoir type and operation (storage versus run-of-river reservoirs). The reduction in turbidity assessed from space presented a good relationship with conventional sediment trapping efficiency calculations, demonstrating the potential use of this technology for monitoring the intensity of sedimentation processes within reservoirs and at large scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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16 pages, 3685 KiB  
Article
Decline in Transparency of Lake Hongze from Long-Term MODIS Observations: Possible Causes and Potential Significance
by Na Li, Kun Shi, Yunlin Zhang, Zhijun Gong, Kai Peng, Yibo Zhang and Yong Zha
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(2), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11020177 - 18 Jan 2019
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3799
Abstract
Transparency is an important indicator of water quality and the underwater light environment and is widely measured in water quality monitoring. Decreasing transparency occurs throughout the world and has become the primary water quality issue for many freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems due [...] Read more.
Transparency is an important indicator of water quality and the underwater light environment and is widely measured in water quality monitoring. Decreasing transparency occurs throughout the world and has become the primary water quality issue for many freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems due to eutrophication and other human activities. Lake Hongze is the fourth largest freshwater lake in China, providing water for surrounding cities and farms but experiencing significant water quality changes. However, there are very few studies about Lake Hongze’s transparency due to the lack of long-term monitoring data for the lake. To understand long-term trends, possible causes and potential significance of the transparency in Lake Hongze, an empirical model for estimating transparency (using Secchi disk depth: SDD) based on the moderate resolution image spectroradiometer (MODIS) 645-nm data was validated using an in situ dataset. Model mean absolute percentage and root mean square errors for the validation dataset were 27.7% and RMSE = 0.082 m, respectively, which indicates that the model performs well for SDD estimation in Lake Hongze without any adjustment of model parameters. Subsequently, 1785 cloud-free images were selected for use by the validated model to estimate SDDs of Lake Hongze in 2003–2017. The long-term change of SDD of Lake Hongze showed a decreasing trend from 2007 to 2017, with an average of 0.49 m, ranging from 0.57 m in 2007 to 0.42 m in 2016 (a decrease of 26.3%), which indicates that Lake Hongze experienced increased turbidity in the past 11 years. The loss of aquatic vegetation in the northern bays may be mainly affected by decreases of SDD. Increasing total suspended matter (TSM) concentration resulting from sand mining activities may be responsible for the decreasing trend of SDD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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22 pages, 4633 KiB  
Article
Glint Removal Assessment to Estimate the Remote Sensing Reflectance in Inland Waters with Widely Differing Optical Properties
by Nariane Bernardo, Enner Alcântara, Fernanda Watanabe, Thanan Rodrigues, Alisson Carmo, Ana Gomes and Caroline Andrade
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(10), 1655; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101655 - 18 Oct 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4239
Abstract
The quality control of remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) is a challenging task in remote sensing applications, mainly in the retrieval of accurate in situ measurements carried out in optically complex aquatic systems. One of the main challenges is related to [...] Read more.
The quality control of remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) is a challenging task in remote sensing applications, mainly in the retrieval of accurate in situ measurements carried out in optically complex aquatic systems. One of the main challenges is related to glint effect into the in situ measurements. Our study evaluates four different methods to reduce the glint effect from the Rrs spectra collected in cascade reservoirs with widely differing optical properties. The first (i) method adopts a constant coefficient for skylight correction (ρ) for any geometry viewing of in situ measurements and wind speed lower than 5 m·s−1; (ii) the second uses a look-up-table with variable ρ values accordingly to viewing geometry acquisition and wind speed; (iii) the third method is based on hyperspectral optimization to produce a spectral glint correction, and (iv) computes ρ as a function of wind speed. The glint effect corrected Rrs spectra were assessed using HydroLight simulations. The results showed that using the glint correction with spectral ρ achieved the lowest errors, however, in a Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) dominated environment with no remarkable chlorophyll-a concentrations, the best method was the second. Besides, the results with spectral glint correction reduced almost 30% of errors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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23 pages, 11430 KiB  
Article
Flood Hazard Assessment Supported by Reduced Cost Aerial Precision Photogrammetry
by Santiago Zazo, Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, José-Luis Molina, Diego González-Aguilera, Carlos Andrés Agudelo-Ruiz and David Hernández-López
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(10), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101566 - 01 Oct 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4069
Abstract
Increasing flood hazards worldwide due to the intensification of hydrological events and the development of adaptation-mitigation strategies are key challenges that society must address. To minimize flood damages, one of the crucial factors is the identification of flood prone areas through fluvial hydraulic [...] Read more.
Increasing flood hazards worldwide due to the intensification of hydrological events and the development of adaptation-mitigation strategies are key challenges that society must address. To minimize flood damages, one of the crucial factors is the identification of flood prone areas through fluvial hydraulic modelling in which a detailed knowledge of the terrain plays an important role for reliable results. Recent studies have demonstrated the suitability of the Reduced Cost Aerial Precision Photogrammetry (RC-APP) technique for fluvial applications by accurate-detailed-reliable Digital Terrain Models (DTMs, up to: ≈100 point/m2; vertical-uncertainty: ±0.06 m). This work aims to provide an optimal relationship between point densities and vertical-uncertainties to generate more reliable fluvial hazard maps by fluvial-DTMs. This is performed through hydraulic models supported by geometric models that are obtained from a joint strategy based on Structure from Motion and Cloth Simulation Filtering algorithms. Furthermore, to evaluate vertical-DTM, uncertainty is proposed as an alternative approach based on the method of robust estimators. This offers an error dispersion value analogous to the concept of standard deviation of a Gaussian distribution without requiring normality tests. This paper reinforces the suitability of new geomatic solutions as a reliable-competitive source of accurate DTMs at the service of a flood hazard assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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22 pages, 8243 KiB  
Article
Colour Classification of 1486 Lakes across a Wide Range of Optical Water Types
by Moritz K. Lehmann, Uyen Nguyen, Mathew Allan and Hendrik Jan Van der Woerd
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(8), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10081273 - 13 Aug 2018
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 10896
Abstract
Remote sensing by satellite-borne sensors presents a significant opportunity to enhance the spatio-temporal coverage of environmental monitoring programmes for lakes, but the estimation of classic water quality attributes from inland water bodies has not reached operational status due to the difficulty of discerning [...] Read more.
Remote sensing by satellite-borne sensors presents a significant opportunity to enhance the spatio-temporal coverage of environmental monitoring programmes for lakes, but the estimation of classic water quality attributes from inland water bodies has not reached operational status due to the difficulty of discerning the spectral signatures of optically active water constituents. Determination of water colour, as perceived by the human eye, does not require knowledge of inherent optical properties and therefore represents a generally applicable remotely-sensed water quality attribute. In this paper, we implemented a recent algorithm for the retrieval of colour parameters (hue angle, dominant wavelength) and derived a new correction for colour purity to account for the spectral bandpass of the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI). We used this algorithm to calculate water colour on almost 45,000 observations over four years from 1486 lakes from a diverse range of optical water types in New Zealand. We show that the most prevalent lake colours are yellow-orange and blue, respectively, while green observations are comparatively rare. About 40% of the study lakes show transitions between colours at a range of time scales, including seasonal. A preliminary exploratory analysis suggests that both geo-physical and anthropogenic factors, such as catchment land use, provide environmental control of lake colour and are promising avenues for future analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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25 pages, 5361 KiB  
Article
In-Channel 3D Models of Riverine Environments for Hydromorphological Characterization
by Jan Vandrol, Monica Rivas Casado, Kim Blackburn, Toby W. Waine, Paul Leinster and Ros Wright
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(7), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10071005 - 25 Jun 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4744
Abstract
Recent legislative approaches to improve the quality of rivers have resulted in the design and implementation of extensive and intensive monitoring programmes that are costly and time consuming. An important component of assessing the ecological status of a water body as required by [...] Read more.
Recent legislative approaches to improve the quality of rivers have resulted in the design and implementation of extensive and intensive monitoring programmes that are costly and time consuming. An important component of assessing the ecological status of a water body as required by the Water Framework Directive is characterising the hydromorphology. Recent advances in autonomous operation and the spatial coverage of monitoring systems enables more rapid 3D models of the river environment to be produced. This study presents a Structure from Motion (SfM) semi-autonomous based framework for the estimation of key reach hydromorphological measures such as water surface area, wetted water width, bank height, bank slope and bank-full width, using in-channel stereo-imagery. The framework relies on a stereo-camera that could be positioned on an autonomous boat. The proposed approach is demonstrated along three 40 m long reaches with differing hydromorphological characteristics. Results indicated that optimal stereo-camera settings need to be selected based on the river appearance. Results also indicated that the characteristics of the reach have an impact on the estimation of the hydromorphological measures; densely vegetated banks, presence of debris and sinuosity along the reach increased the overall error in hydromorphological measure estimation. The results obtained highlight a potential way forward towards the autonomous monitoring of freshwater ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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17 pages, 3527 KiB  
Article
A Multivariate Analysis Framework to Detect Key Environmental Factors Affecting Spatiotemporal Variability of Chlorophyll-a in a Tropical Productive Estuarine-Lagoon System
by Regina Camara Lins, Jean-Michel Martinez, David Da Motta Marques, José Almir Cirilo, Paulo Ricardo Petter Medeiros and Carlos Ruberto Fragoso Júnior
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(6), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10060853 - 01 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4159
Abstract
Here, we demonstrate how a combination of three multivariate statistic techniques can identify key environmental factors affecting the seasonal and spatial variability of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in a productive tropical estuarine-lagoon system. Remote estimation of Chl-a was carried out using a NIR-Red model based [...] Read more.
Here, we demonstrate how a combination of three multivariate statistic techniques can identify key environmental factors affecting the seasonal and spatial variability of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in a productive tropical estuarine-lagoon system. Remote estimation of Chl-a was carried out using a NIR-Red model based on MODIS bands, which is highly consistent with the in situ measurement of Chl-a with root mean square error (RMSE) of 15.24 mg m−3 and 13.43 mg m−3 for two independent datasets used for the model’s calibration and validation, respectively. Our findings suggest that the river discharges and hydraulic residence time of the lagoons promote a stronger effect on the spatial variability of Chl-a in the coastal lagoons, while wind, solar radiation and temperature have a secondary importance. The results also indicate a slight seasonal variability of Chl-a in Mundaú lagoon, which are different the from Manguaba lagoon. The multivariate approach was able to fully understand the relative importance of key environmental factors on the spatiotemporal variability of Chl-a of the aquatic ecosystem, providing a powerful tool for reducing dimensionality and analyzing large amounts of satellite-derived Chl-a data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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19 pages, 26538 KiB  
Article
Lake Area Changes and Their Influence on Factors in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions along the Silk Road
by Chao Tan, Bo Guo, Honghai Kuang, Hong Yang and Mingguo Ma
Remote Sens. 2018, 10(4), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10040595 - 12 Apr 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5595
Abstract
In the context of global warming, the changes in major lakes and their responses to the influence factors in arid and semi-arid regions along the Silk Road are especially important for the sustainable development of local water resources. In this study, the areas [...] Read more.
In the context of global warming, the changes in major lakes and their responses to the influence factors in arid and semi-arid regions along the Silk Road are especially important for the sustainable development of local water resources. In this study, the areas of 24 lakes were extracted using MODIS NDVI data, and their spatial-temporal characteristics were analyzed. In addition, the relationship between lake areas and the influence factors, including air temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, land use and land cover change (LULCC) and population density in the watersheds, were investigated. The results indicated that the areas of most lakes shrank, and the total area decreased by 22,189.7 km2 from 2001 to 2016, except for those of the lakes located on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The air temperature was the most important factor for all the lakes and increased at a rate of 0.113 °C/a during the past 16 years. LULCC and the increasing population density markedly influenced the lakes located in the middle to western parts of this study area. Therefore, our results connecting lake area changes in the study region highlight the great challenge of water resources and the urgency of implementation of the green policy in the One Belt and One Road Initiative through international collaboration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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2 pages, 159 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Al-Kharusi, E.S., et al. Large-Scale Retrieval of Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter in Northern Lakes Using Sentinel-2 Data. Remote Sensing 2020, 12(1), p.157
by Enass Said. Al-Kharusi, David E. Tenenbaum, Abdulhakim M. Abdi, Tiit Kutser, Jan Karlsson, Ann-Kristin Bergström and Martin Berggren
Remote Sens. 2020, 12(6), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12061013 - 21 Mar 2020
Viewed by 1631
Abstract
The authors wish to make the following correction to Table 7 in this paper [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Inland Waters and Their Catchments)
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