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Polymers, Volume 16, Issue 8 (April-2 2024) – 157 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): New solid polymer electrolyte technology enhances lithium–sulfur battery performance by suppressing the shuttle effect. This study used modified silica nanoparticles to improve ion conductivity, thereby resulting in a solid polymer electrolyte with excellent and stable electrochemical performance. View this paper
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22 pages, 7463 KiB  
Article
Crystallization Behavior of Copolyesters Containing Sulfonates
by Zhiyong Li, Yongjing Chu, Qing Huang, Xiaopei Jin, Zhicheng Qiu and Jian Jin
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081177 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1291
Abstract
The polar sulfonate groups in cationic dyeable polyester (CDP) lead to complex crystallization behavior, affecting CDP production’s stability. In this study, cationic dyeable polyesters (CDP) with different sulfonate group contents were prepared via one-step feeding of sodium isophthalic acid-5-sulfonate (SIPA), terephthalic acid (PTA), [...] Read more.
The polar sulfonate groups in cationic dyeable polyester (CDP) lead to complex crystallization behavior, affecting CDP production’s stability. In this study, cationic dyeable polyesters (CDP) with different sulfonate group contents were prepared via one-step feeding of sodium isophthalic acid-5-sulfonate (SIPA), terephthalic acid (PTA), and ethylene glycol (EG). The non-isothermal crystallization behavior of these copolyesters was analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Results show that the crystallization temperature of the sample shifts to lower values with the increase in SIPA content. The relaxation behavior of the molecular chain is enhanced due to the ionic aggregation effect of sulfonate groups in CDP. Therefore, at low cooling rates (2.5 °C/min and 5 °C/min), some molecular chain segments in CDP are still too late to orderly stack into the lattice, forming metastable crystals, and melting double peaks appear on the melting curve after crystallization. When the cooling rate increases (10–20 °C/min), the limited region of sulfonate aggregation in CDP increases, resulting in more random chain segments, and a cold crystallization peak appears on the melting curve after crystallization. The non-isothermal crystallization behavior of all samples was fitted and analyzed by the Jeziorny equation, Ozawa equation, and Mo equation. The results indicate that the nucleation density and nucleation growth rate of CDP decrease with the increase in SIPA content. Meanwhile, analysis of the Kissinger equation reveals that the activation energy of non-isothermal crystallization decreases gradually with the increase in SIPA content, and the addition of SIPA makes CDP crystallization more difficult. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Polymer Materials II)
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16 pages, 6005 KiB  
Article
Pseudo-Eutectic of Isodimorphism to Design Biaxially-Oriented Bio-Based PA56/512 with High Strength, Toughness and Barrier Performances
by Diansong Gan, Yuejun Liu, Tianhui Hu, Shuhong Fan, Lingna Cui, Guangkai Liao, Zhenyan Xie, Xiaoyu Zhu and Kejian Yang
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081176 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1256
Abstract
The biaxially-oriented PA56/512 has excellent mechanical strength, extensibility and water–oxygen barrier properties and has broad application prospects in green packaging, lithium battery diaphragm and medical equipment materials. The correlation between the aggregation structure evolution and macroscopic comprehensive properties of copolymer PA56/512 under biaxial [...] Read more.
The biaxially-oriented PA56/512 has excellent mechanical strength, extensibility and water–oxygen barrier properties and has broad application prospects in green packaging, lithium battery diaphragm and medical equipment materials. The correlation between the aggregation structure evolution and macroscopic comprehensive properties of copolymer PA56/512 under biaxial stretching has been demonstrated in this work. The structure of the random copolymerization sequence was characterized by 13C Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The typical isodimorphism behavior of the co-crystallization system of PA56/512 and its BOPA-56/512 films was revealed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests. And the aggregation structure, including the hydrogen bond arrangement, crystal structure and crystal morphology of PA56/512 before and after biaxial stretching, was investigated by XRD, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and polarized optical microscopy (POM) tests. Furthermore, the effect of the biaxially-oriented stretching process on the mechanical properties of PA56/512 has been demonstrated. In addition, a deep insight into the influence of the structure on the crystallization process and physical–mechanical performance has been presented. The lowest melting point at a 512 content of 60 mol% is regarded as a “eutectic” point of the isodimorphism system. Due to the high disorder of the structural units in the polymer chain, the transition degree of the folded chain (gauche conformation) is relatively lowest when it is straightened to form an extended chain (trans conformation) during biaxially-oriented stretching, and part of the folded chain can be retained. This explains why biaxially stretched PA56/512 has high strength, outstanding toughness and excellent barrier properties at the pseudo-eutectic point. In this study, using the unique multi-scale aggregation structure characteristics of a heterohomodymite polyamide at the pseudo-eutectic point, combined with the new material design scheme and the idea of biaxial-stretching processing, a new idea for customized design of high-performance multifunctional polyamide synthetic materials is provided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Interfacial Compatibility of Polymer Materials)
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21 pages, 6603 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Environment-Friendly and Sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Constructed Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS)-Based Gyroid Structures
by Syed Saarim Razi, Salman Pervaiz, Rahmat Agung Susantyoko and Mozah Alyammahi
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081175 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1877
Abstract
The demand for robust yet lightweight materials has exponentially increased in several engineering applications. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology have the ability to meet this demand at a fraction of the cost compared with traditional manufacturing techniques. By using the fused deposition [...] Read more.
The demand for robust yet lightweight materials has exponentially increased in several engineering applications. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology have the ability to meet this demand at a fraction of the cost compared with traditional manufacturing techniques. By using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique, objects can be 3D-printed with complex designs and patterns using cost-effective, biodegradable, and sustainable thermoplastic polymer filaments such as polylactic acid (PLA). This study aims to provide results to guide users in selecting the optimal printing and testing parameters for additively manufactured/3D-printed components. This study was designed using the Taguchi method and grey relational analysis. Compressive test results on nine similarly patterned samples suggest that cuboid gyroid-structured samples perform the best under compression and retain more mechanical strength than the other tested triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures. A printing speed of 40 mm/s, relative density of 60%, and cell size of 3.17 mm were the best choice of input parameters within the tested ranges to provide the optimal performance of a sample that experiences greater force or energy to compress until failure. The ninth experiment on the above-mentioned conditions improved the yield strength by 16.9%, the compression modulus by 34.8%, and energy absorption by 29.5% when compared with the second-best performance, which was obtained in the third experiment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Physical Properties of 3D Printed Polymer Materials)
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16 pages, 6470 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Behavior of Lithium-Ion Battery Separators under Uniaxial and Biaxial Loading Conditions
by Sahand Shamchi, Behzad V. Farahani, Marian Bulla and Stefan Kolling
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081174 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1898
Abstract
The mechanical integrity of two commercially available lithium-ion battery separators was investigated under uniaxial and biaxial loading conditions. Two dry-processed microporous films with polypropylene (PP)/polyethylene (PE)/polypropylene (PP) compositions were studied: Celgard H2010 Trilayer and Celgard Q20S1HX Ceramic-Coated Trilayer. The uniaxial tests were carried [...] Read more.
The mechanical integrity of two commercially available lithium-ion battery separators was investigated under uniaxial and biaxial loading conditions. Two dry-processed microporous films with polypropylene (PP)/polyethylene (PE)/polypropylene (PP) compositions were studied: Celgard H2010 Trilayer and Celgard Q20S1HX Ceramic-Coated Trilayer. The uniaxial tests were carried out along the machine direction (MD), transverse direction (TD), and diagonal direction (DD). In order to generate a state of in-plane biaxial tension, a pneumatic bulge test setup was prioritized over the commonly performed punch test in an attempt to eliminate the effects of contact friction. The biaxial flow stress–strain behavior of the membranes was deduced via the Panknin–Kruglov method coupled with a 3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique. The findings demonstrate a high degree of in-plane anisotropy in both membranes. The ceramic coating was found to negatively affect the mechanical performance of the trilayer microporous separator, compromising its strength and stretchability, while preserving its failure mode. Derived from experimentally calibrated constitutive models, a finite element model was developed using the explicit solver OpenRadioss. The numerical model was capable of predicting the biaxial deformation of the semicrystalline membranes up until failure, showing a fairly good correlation with the experimental observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crystalline Polymer Materials for Soft Electronics)
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13 pages, 5111 KiB  
Article
Ag-MWCNT Composites for Improving the Electrical and Thermal Properties of Electronic Paste
by Yunkai Wang, Danlei Jing, Zikai Xiong, Yongqing Hu, Wei Li, Haotian Wu and Chuan Zuo
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081173 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1712
Abstract
With the development of microelectronics products with high density and high power, it is urgent to improve the electrical and thermal conductivity of electronic paste to achieve the new requirements of packaging materials. In this work, a new synthesis method of Ag-MWCNTs was [...] Read more.
With the development of microelectronics products with high density and high power, it is urgent to improve the electrical and thermal conductivity of electronic paste to achieve the new requirements of packaging materials. In this work, a new synthesis method of Ag-MWCNTs was designed: Firstly, carboxylated MWCNTs and stannous chloride were used as raw materials to prepare high-loading-rate Sn-MWCNT composite material to ensure the high loading rate of metal on the MWCNT surface. Then, Ag-MWCNT composite material was prepared by the chemical displacement method to solve the problem of the low loading rate of silver nanoparticles on the MWCNT surface. On the basis of this innovation, we analyzed and compared the electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of Ag-MWCNT composite electronic paste. Compared with the electronic paste without adding Ag-MWCNTs, the resistivity was reduced by 77%, the thermal conductivity was increased by 66%, and the shear strength was increased by 15%. Therefore, the addition of Ag-MWCNTs effectively improves the electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the paste, making it a promising and competitive choice for new packaging materials in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials, Volume II)
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14 pages, 3475 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterization of Soft-Hard Block Copolymer of 3,4-IP-b-s-1,2-PBD Using a Robust Iron-Based Catalyst System
by Yingnan Zhao, Shiliang Xu, Yao Yu, Heng Liu, Feng Wang, Lihua Na, Qi Yang, Chunyu Zhang and Xuequan Zhang
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081172 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1553
Abstract
A series of well-defined diblock copolymers, namely, 3,4-polyisoprene-block-syndiotactic-1,2-polybutadiene (3,4-PI-b-s-1,2-PBD), with a soft–hard block sequence were synthesized via an in situ sequential polymerization process using a robust iron-based catalytic system Fe(acac)3/(isocyanoimino) triptenylphosphorane (IITP)/Ali [...] Read more.
A series of well-defined diblock copolymers, namely, 3,4-polyisoprene-block-syndiotactic-1,2-polybutadiene (3,4-PI-b-s-1,2-PBD), with a soft–hard block sequence were synthesized via an in situ sequential polymerization process using a robust iron-based catalytic system Fe(acac)3/(isocyanoimino) triptenylphosphorane (IITP)/AliBu3. This catalyst exhibits vigorous activity and temperature tolerance, achieving a polymerization activity of 5.41 × 106 g mol(Fe)−1 h−1 at 70 °C with a [IP]/[Fe] ratio of 15,000. Moreover, the quasi-living polymerization characteristics of the catalyst were verified through kinetic experiments. The first-stage polymerization of isoprene (IP) is performed at 30 °C to give a soft 3,4-PI block, and then a quantitative amount of 1,3-butadiene was added in situ to the quasi-living polymerization system to produce a second hard s-1,2-PBD. The s-1,2-PBD segments in block copolymers display a rodlike morphology contrasting with the spherulitic morphology characteristic of s-1,2-PBD homopolymers. The precise tunability of the length of the soft and hard chain segments of these novel elastic materials with the feed ratio of IP and BD, endowing them with outstanding mechanical properties and excellent dynamic mechanical properties, which are expected to be promising high-performance rubber materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Block Copolymers: Synthesis, Self-Assembly and Application)
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15 pages, 5061 KiB  
Article
Preparation of Non-Isocyanate Polyurethanes from Mixed Cyclic-Carbonated Compounds: Soybean Oil and CO2-Based Poly(ether carbonate)
by Ga Ram Lee, Eun Jong Lee, Hye Sun Shin, Joonwoo Kim, Il Kim and Sung Chul Hong
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081171 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1844
Abstract
This study presents the synthesis and characterization of non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPU) derived from the copolymerization of cyclic-carbonated soybean oil (CSBO) and cyclic carbonate (CC)-terminated poly(ether carbonate) (RCC). Using a double-metal cyanide catalyst, poly(ether carbonate) polyol was first synthesized through the copolymerization of carbon [...] Read more.
This study presents the synthesis and characterization of non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPU) derived from the copolymerization of cyclic-carbonated soybean oil (CSBO) and cyclic carbonate (CC)-terminated poly(ether carbonate) (RCC). Using a double-metal cyanide catalyst, poly(ether carbonate) polyol was first synthesized through the copolymerization of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide. The terminal hydroxyl group was then subjected to a substitution reaction with a five-membered CC group using glycerol-1,2-carbonate and oxalyl chloride, yielding RCC. Attempts to prepare NIPU solely using RCC and diamine were unsuccessful, possibly due to the low CC functionality and the aminolysis of RCC’s linear carbonate repeating units. However, when combined with CSBO, solid NIPUs were successfully obtained, exhibiting good thermal stability along with enhanced mechanical properties compared to conventional CSBO-based NIPU formulations. Overall, this study underscores the potential of leveraging renewable resources and carbon capture technologies to develop sustainable NIPUs with tailored properties, thereby expanding their range of applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Polyurethane)
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39 pages, 2535 KiB  
Review
Investigation of Cellulose-Based Materials Applied in Life Sciences Using Laser Light Scattering Methods
by Anca-Giorgiana Grigoras
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081170 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1274
Abstract
This review emphasizes the practical importance of laser light scattering methods for characterizing cellulose and its derivatives. The physicochemical parameters like molecular weights, the radius of gyration, hydrodynamic radius, and conformation will be considered when the reproducibility of polymer behavior in solution is [...] Read more.
This review emphasizes the practical importance of laser light scattering methods for characterizing cellulose and its derivatives. The physicochemical parameters like molecular weights, the radius of gyration, hydrodynamic radius, and conformation will be considered when the reproducibility of polymer behavior in solution is necessary for the subsequent optimization of the property profile of a designed product. Since there are various sources of cellulose, and the methods of cellulose extraction and chemical modification have variable yields, materials with variable molecular weights, and size polydispersity will often result. Later, the molecular masses will influence other physicochemical properties of cellulosic materials, both in solution and solid state. Consequently, the most rigorous determination of these quantities is imperative. In this regard, the following are presented and discussed in this review: the theoretical foundations of the light scattering phenomenon, the evolution of the specific instrumentation and detectors, the development of the detector-coupling techniques which include a light scattering detector, and finally, the importance of the specific parameters of polymers in solution, resulting from the data analysis of light scattering signals. All these aspects are summarized according to the chemical classification of the materials: celluloses, esters of cellulose, co-esters of cellulose, alkyl esters of cellulose, ethers of cellulose, and other heterogeneous cellulose derivatives with applications in life sciences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Polysaccharides: Structure and Applications)
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13 pages, 3771 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Thermal Conductivity in Polymer Composites through Molding-Assisted Orientation of Boron Nitride
by Yongjia Liu, Weiheng Gong, Xingjian Liu, Yicheng Fan, Aihua He and Huarong Nie
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081169 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2189
Abstract
Incrementing thermal conductivity in polymer composites through the incorporation of inorganic thermally conductive fillers is typically constrained by the requirement of high filler content. This necessity often complicates processing and adversely affects mechanical properties. This study presents the fabrication of a polystyrene (PS)/boron [...] Read more.
Incrementing thermal conductivity in polymer composites through the incorporation of inorganic thermally conductive fillers is typically constrained by the requirement of high filler content. This necessity often complicates processing and adversely affects mechanical properties. This study presents the fabrication of a polystyrene (PS)/boron nitride (BN) composite exhibiting elevated thermal conductivity with a modest 10 wt% BN content, achieved through optimized compression molding. Adjustments to molding parameters, including molding-cycle numbers, temperature, and pressure, were explored. The molding process, conducted above the glass transition temperature of PS, facilitated orientational alignment of BN within the PS matrix predominantly in the in-plane direction. This orientation, achieved at low filler loading, resulted in a threefold enhancement of thermal conductivity following a single molding time. Furthermore, the in-plane alignment of BN within the PS matrix was found to intensify with increased molding time and pressure, markedly boosting the in-plane thermal conductivity of the PS/BN molded composites. Within the range of molding parameters examined, the highest thermal conductivity (1.6 W/m·K) was observed in PS/BN composites subjected to five molding cycles at 140 °C and 10 MPa, without compromising mechanical properties. This study suggests that compression molding, which allows low filler content and straightforward operation, offers a viable approach for the mass production of polymer composites with superior thermal conductivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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14 pages, 8159 KiB  
Article
Effect of Graphene Oxide Surface Deposition Process on Synthetic Macrofibers and Its Results on the Microstructure of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
by Vinício Cecconello and Matheus Poletto
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081168 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1115
Abstract
The improvement of the mechanical properties of concrete can be achieved with the use of synthetic macrofibers. However, this fiber–matrix interaction will be sufficiently efficient for tensile efforts only when there is a binding agent that associates the characteristics of the paste with [...] Read more.
The improvement of the mechanical properties of concrete can be achieved with the use of synthetic macrofibers. However, this fiber–matrix interaction will be sufficiently efficient for tensile efforts only when there is a binding agent that associates the characteristics of the paste with the characteristics of the surface of the reinforcing material. As already identified, in a first phase of this research using synthetic microfibers, a better fiber–matrix interaction can be achieved with the surface treatment of synthetic fibers with graphene oxide. In this way, we sought to evaluate the surface treatment with graphene oxide on two synthetic polypropylene macrofibers (macrofiber “A” and macrofiber “B”) and its contribution to the concrete transition zone. The surface deposition on the macrofiber was carried out using the ultrasonication method; then, the macrofiber with the best deposition for creating reinforced concrete mixtures was identified. To evaluate the quality of GO deposition, scanning electron microscopy (SEM-FEG) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) tests were carried out; the same technique was used to evaluate the macrofiber–matrix transition zone. The SEM-FEG images indicated that macrofiber “B” obtained greater homogeneity in surface deposition and it presented a 13% greater deposition of C in the EDS spectra. The SEM-FEG micrographs for reinforced concrete indicated a reduction in voids in the macrofiber–matrix transition zone for concretes that used macrofibers treated with GO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Polymers in Sustainable Building Materials)
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18 pages, 7633 KiB  
Article
In Situ Reduction of Silver Nanoparticles/Urushiol-Based Polybenzoxazine Composite Coatings with Enhanced Antimicrobial and Antifouling Performances
by Jipeng Chen, Xiaoxiao Zheng, Rongkun Jian, Weibin Bai, Guocai Zheng, Zhipeng Xie, Qi Lin, Fengcai Lin and Yanlian Xu
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081167 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1372
Abstract
Marine anti-fouling coatings represent an efficient approach to prevent and control the marine biofouling. However, a significant amount of antifouling agent is added to improve the static antifouling performance of the coatings, which leads to an issue whereby static antifouling performance conflicts with [...] Read more.
Marine anti-fouling coatings represent an efficient approach to prevent and control the marine biofouling. However, a significant amount of antifouling agent is added to improve the static antifouling performance of the coatings, which leads to an issue whereby static antifouling performance conflicts with eco-friendly traits. Herein, this work reports an in situ reduction synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) within polymers to produce composite coatings, aiming to solve the aforementioned issue. Firstly, urushiol-based benzoxazine monomers were synthesized by the Mannich reaction, using an eco-friendly natural product urushiol and n-octylamine and paraformaldehyde as the reactants. Additionally, AgNPs were obtained through the employment of free radicals formed by phenolic hydroxyl groups in the urushiol-based benzoxazine monomers, achieved by the in situ reduction of silver nitrate in benzoxazine. Then, the urushiol-based benzoxazine/AgNPs composite coatings were prepared by the thermosetting method. AgNPs exhibit broad-spectrum and highly efficient antimicrobial properties, with a low risk to human health and a minimal environmental impact. The composite coating containing a small amount of AgNPs (≤1 wt%) exhibits effective inhibition against various types of bacteria and marine microalgae in static immersion, thereby displaying outstanding antifouling properties. This organic polymer and inorganic nanoparticle composite marine antifouling coating, with its simple preparation method and eco-friendliness, presents an effective solution to the conflict between static antifouling effectiveness and environmental sustainability in marine antifouling coatings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and Metals from Nano- to Macro-Scale: Composite Materials and Coatings)
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12 pages, 2869 KiB  
Article
Theoretical Analysis of Thermophysical Properties of 3D Carbon/Epoxy Braided Composites with Varying Temperature
by Li-Li Jiang, Zhen-Guo Li, Dong-Ye Wang, Jun-Jun Zhai and Xiang-Xia Kong
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081166 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1149
Abstract
A three-dimensional helix geometry unit cell is established to simulate the complex spatial configuration of 3D braided composites. Initially, different types of yarn factors, such as yarn path, cross-sectional shape, properties, and braid direction, are explained. Then, the multiphase finite element method is [...] Read more.
A three-dimensional helix geometry unit cell is established to simulate the complex spatial configuration of 3D braided composites. Initially, different types of yarn factors, such as yarn path, cross-sectional shape, properties, and braid direction, are explained. Then, the multiphase finite element method is used to develop a new theoretical calculation procedure based on the unit cell for predicting the impacts of environmental temperature on the thermophysical properties of 3D four-direction carbon/epoxy braided composites. The changing rule and distribution characteristics of the thermophysical properties for 3D four-direction carbon/epoxy braided composites are obtained at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 200 °C. The influences of environmental temperature on the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) and the coefficients of thermal conduction (CTC) are evaluated, by which some important conclusions are drawn. A comparison is conducted between theoretical and experimental results, revealing that variations in temperature exert a notable influence on the thermophysical characteristics of 3D four-directional carbon/epoxy braided composites. The theoretical calculation procedure is an effective tool for the mechanical property analysis of composite materials with complex geometries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composite Analysis and Characterization II)
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22 pages, 28335 KiB  
Article
Specifics of Porous Polymer and Xenogeneic Matrices and of Bone Tissue Regeneration Related to Their Implantation into an Experimental Rabbit Defect
by Diana Ya. Aleynik, Oleg P. Zhivtscov, Vladimir V. Yudin, Roman S. Kovylin, Roman N. Komarov, Irina N. Charykova, Daria D. Linkova, Yulia P. Rubtsova, Maria S. Guseva, Tatyana I. Vasyagina, Alexander G. Morozov, Sergey A. Chesnokov and Marfa N. Egorikhina
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081165 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1270
Abstract
This paper provides a study of two bone substitutes: a hybrid porous polymer and an osteoplastic matrix based on a bovine-derived xenograft. Both materials are porous, but their pore characteristics are different. The osteoplastic matrix has pores of 300–600 µm and the hybrid [...] Read more.
This paper provides a study of two bone substitutes: a hybrid porous polymer and an osteoplastic matrix based on a bovine-derived xenograft. Both materials are porous, but their pore characteristics are different. The osteoplastic matrix has pores of 300–600 µm and the hybrid polymer has smaller pores, generally of 6–20 µm, but with some pores up to 100 µm across. SEM data confirmed the porometry results and demonstrated the different structures of the materials. Therefore, both materials were characterized by an interconnected porous structure and provided conditions for the adhesion and vital activity of human ASCs in vitro. In an experimental model of rabbit shin bone defect, it was shown that, during the 6-month observation period, neither of the materials caused negative reactions in the experimental animals. By the end of the observation period, restoration of the defects in animals in both groups was completed, and elements of both materials were preserved in the defect areas. Data from morphological examinations and CT data demonstrated that the rate of rabbit bone tissue regeneration with the hybrid polymer was comparable to that with the osteoplastic matrix. Therefore, the hybrid polymer has good potential for use in further research and improvement in biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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14 pages, 3377 KiB  
Article
High-Performance, Easy-to-Fabricate, Nanocomposite Heater for Life Sciences and Biomedical Applications
by Yudan Whulanza, Husein Ammar, Deni Haryadi, Azizah Intan Pangesty, Widoretno Widoretno, Didik Tulus Subekti and Jérôme Charmet
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081164 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1700
Abstract
Microheaters are used in several applications, including medical diagnostics, synthesis, environmental monitoring, and actuation. Conventional microheaters rely on thin-film electrodes microfabricated in a clean-room environment. However, low-cost alternatives based on conductive paste electrodes fabricated using printing techniques have started to emerge over the [...] Read more.
Microheaters are used in several applications, including medical diagnostics, synthesis, environmental monitoring, and actuation. Conventional microheaters rely on thin-film electrodes microfabricated in a clean-room environment. However, low-cost alternatives based on conductive paste electrodes fabricated using printing techniques have started to emerge over the years. Here, we report a surprising effect that leads to significant electrode performance improvement as confirmed by the thorough characterization of bulk, processed, and conditioned samples. Mixing silver ink and PVA results in the solubilization of performance-hindering organic compounds. These compounds evaporate during heating cycles. The new electrodes, which reach a temperature of 80 °C within 5 min using a current of 7.0 A, display an overall 42% and 35% improvement in the mechanical (hardness) and electrical (resistivity) properties compared to pristine silver ink electrodes. To validate our results, we use the composite heater to amplify and detect parasite DNA from Trypanosoma brucei, associated with African sleeping sickness. Our LAMP test compares well with commercially available systems, confirming the excellent performance of our nanocomposite heaters. Since their fabrication relies on well-established techniques, we anticipate they will find use in a range of applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Containing Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, Applications)
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21 pages, 8241 KiB  
Article
Degradable Nanogels Based on Poly[Oligo(Ethylene Glycol) Methacrylate] (POEGMA) Derivatives through Thermo-Induced Aggregation of Polymer Chain and Subsequent Chemical Crosslinking
by Katarzyna Filipek, Łukasz Otulakowski, Katarzyna Jelonek and Alicja Utrata-Wesołek
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081163 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1379
Abstract
Polymer nanogels—considered as nanoscale hydrogel particles—are attractive for biological and biomedical applications due to their unique physicochemical flexibility. However, the aggregation or accumulation of nanoparticles in the body or the occurrence of the body’s defense reactions still pose a research challenge. Here, we [...] Read more.
Polymer nanogels—considered as nanoscale hydrogel particles—are attractive for biological and biomedical applications due to their unique physicochemical flexibility. However, the aggregation or accumulation of nanoparticles in the body or the occurrence of the body’s defense reactions still pose a research challenge. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication of degradable nanogels using thermoresponsive, cytocompatible poly[oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate]s-based copolymers (POEGMA). The combination of POEGMA’s beneficial properties (switchable affinity to water, nontoxicity, non-immunogenicity) along with the possibility of nanogel degradation constitute an important approach from a biological point of view. The copolymers of oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylates were partially modified with short segments of degradable oligo(lactic acid) (OLA) terminated with the acrylate group. Under the influence of temperature, copolymers formed self-assembled nanoparticles, so-called mesoglobules, with sizes of 140–1000 nm. The thermoresponsive behavior of the obtained copolymers and the nanostructure sizes depended on the heating rate and the presence of salts in the aqueous media. The obtained mesoglobules were stabilized by chemical crosslinking via thiol-acrylate Michael addition, leading to nanogels that degraded over time in water, as indicated by the DLS, cryo-TEM, and AFM measurements. Combining these findings with the lack of toxicity of the obtained systems towards human fibroblasts indicates their application potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 10528 KiB  
Article
Biodegradation of Nitrile Gloves as Sole Carbon Source of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Liquid Culture
by Javier Alejandro Delgado-Nungaray, David Grajeda-Arias, Eire Reynaga-Delgado and Orfil Gonzalez-Reynoso
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1162; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081162 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2232
Abstract
Nitrile gloves have become a significant environmental pollutant after the COVID-19 pandemic due to their single-use design. This study examines the capability of P. aeruginosa to use nitrile gloves as its sole carbon energy source. Biodegradation was determined by P. aeruginosa adapting to [...] Read more.
Nitrile gloves have become a significant environmental pollutant after the COVID-19 pandemic due to their single-use design. This study examines the capability of P. aeruginosa to use nitrile gloves as its sole carbon energy source. Biodegradation was determined by P. aeruginosa adapting to increasing nitrile glove concentrations at 1%, 3%, and 5% (w/v). The growth kinetics of P. aeruginosa were evaluated, as well as the polymer weight loss. Topographic changes on the glove surfaces were examined using SEM, and FT-IR was used to evaluate the biodegradation products of the nitrile gloves. Following the establishment of a biofilm on the glove surface, the nitrile toxicity was minimized via biodegradation. The result of the average weight loss of nitrile gloves was 2.25%. FT-IR analysis revealed the presence of aldehydes and aliphatic amines associated with biodegradation. SEM showed P. aeruginosa immersed in the EPS matrix, causing the formation of cracks, scales, protrusions, and the presence of semi-spherical particles. We conclude that P. aeruginosa has the capability to use nitrile gloves as its sole carbon source, even up to 5%, through biofilm formation, demonstrating the potential of P. aeruginosa for the degradation of nitrile gloves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Degradation and Stabilization of Polymer Systems: Recent Advances)
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26 pages, 14149 KiB  
Article
Detection of Destructive Processes and Assessment of Deformations in PP-Modified Concrete in an Air-Dry State and Exposed to Fire Temperatures Using the Acoustic Emission Method, Numerical Analysis and Digital Image Correlation
by Anna Adamczak-Bugno, Sebastian Lipiec, Peter Koteš, František Bahleda and Jakub Adamczak
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081161 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1229
Abstract
This article presents the results of tests carried out to assess the condition of PP-modified concrete. The tests were carried out on samples previously stored at ambient temperature and exposed to temperatures corresponding to fire conditions—300 °C, 450 °C, and 600 °C. Axial [...] Read more.
This article presents the results of tests carried out to assess the condition of PP-modified concrete. The tests were carried out on samples previously stored at ambient temperature and exposed to temperatures corresponding to fire conditions—300 °C, 450 °C, and 600 °C. Axial compression tests of cube-shaped samples and three-point bending of beams were carried out. During strength tests, acoustic emission (AE) signals were recorded and the force and deformation were measured. Recorded AE events were clustered using the k-means algorithm. The analysis of the test results allowed for the identification of signals characteristic of the individual stages of the material destruction process. Differences in the methods of destruction of samples stored in ambient conditions and those exposed to fire temperatures were also indicated. While loading the samples, measurements were carried out using the digital image correlation (DIC) method, which enabled the determination of displacements. Based on the results of the laboratory tests, a numerical model was developed. The results obtained using different research methods (DIC and FEM) were compared. Tomographic examinations and observations of the microstructure of the tested materials were also carried out. The analyses carried out allowed for a reliable assessment of the possibility of using the acoustic emission method to detect destructive processes and assess the technical condition of PP-modified concrete. It was confirmed that the acoustic emission method, due to differences at low load levels, can be a useful technique for assessing the condition of PP-modified concrete after exposure to fire temperatures. So far, no research directions in a similar field have been identified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polymer Composites for Functional Applications)
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10 pages, 2845 KiB  
Communication
Efficient Synthesis of Fe3O4/PPy Double-Carbonized Core-Shell-like Composites for Broadband Electromagnetic Wave Absorption
by Ahmed Elhassan, Xiaoshuang Lv, Ibrahim Abdalla, Jianyong Yu, Zhaoling Li and Bin Ding
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081160 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1668
Abstract
Ever-increasing electromagnetic pollution largely affects human health, sensitive electronic equipment, and even military security, but current strategies used for developing functional attenuation materials cannot be achieved in a facile and cost-effective way. Here, a unique core-shell-like composite was successfully synthesized by a simple [...] Read more.
Ever-increasing electromagnetic pollution largely affects human health, sensitive electronic equipment, and even military security, but current strategies used for developing functional attenuation materials cannot be achieved in a facile and cost-effective way. Here, a unique core-shell-like composite was successfully synthesized by a simple chemical approach and a rapid microwave-assisted carbonization process. The obtained composites show exceptional electromagnetic wave absorption (EMWA) properties, including a wide effective absorption band (EAB) of 4.64 GHz and a minimum reflection loss (RLmin) of −26 dB at 1.6 mm. The excellent performance can be attributed to the synergistic effects of conductive loss, dielectric loss, magnetic loss, and multiple reflection loss within the graphene-based core–shell-like composite. This work demonstrates a convenient, rapid, eco-friendly, and cost-effective method for synthesizing high-performance microwave absorption materials (MAMs). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Textile and Polymer Materials II)
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33 pages, 6789 KiB  
Review
Natural and Synthetic Polymers for Biomedical and Environmental Applications
by Galina Satchanska, Slavena Davidova and Petar D. Petrov
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1159; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081159 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10322
Abstract
Natural and synthetic polymers are a versatile platform for developing biomaterials in the biomedical and environmental fields. Natural polymers are organic compounds that are found in nature. The most common natural polymers include polysaccharides, such as alginate, hyaluronic acid, and starch, proteins, e.g., [...] Read more.
Natural and synthetic polymers are a versatile platform for developing biomaterials in the biomedical and environmental fields. Natural polymers are organic compounds that are found in nature. The most common natural polymers include polysaccharides, such as alginate, hyaluronic acid, and starch, proteins, e.g., collagen, silk, and fibrin, and bacterial polyesters. Natural polymers have already been applied in numerous sectors, such as carriers for drug delivery, tissue engineering, stem cell morphogenesis, wound healing, regenerative medicine, food packaging, etc. Various synthetic polymers, including poly(lactic acid), poly(acrylic acid), poly(vinyl alcohol), polyethylene glycol, etc., are biocompatible and biodegradable; therefore, they are studied and applied in controlled drug release systems, nano-carriers, tissue engineering, dispersion of bacterial biofilms, gene delivery systems, bio-ink in 3D-printing, textiles in medicine, agriculture, heavy metals removal, and food packaging. In the following review, recent advancements in polymer chemistry, which enable the imparting of specific biomedical functions of polymers, will be discussed in detail, including antiviral, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. This work contains the authors’ experimental contributions to biomedical and environmental polymer applications. This review is a vast overview of natural and synthetic polymers used in biomedical and environmental fields, polymer synthesis, and isolation methods, critically assessessing their advantages, limitations, and prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer Composites for Biomedicine Applications)
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21 pages, 7707 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of a Superabsorbent Polymer Hydrogel in an Alkali Environment and Its Effects on the Mechanical and Shrinkage Properties of Cement Mortars
by Ali Al-Shawafi, Han Zhu, Sadi Ibrahim Haruna, Yasser E. Ibrahim, Jian Yang and Said Mirgan Borito
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1158; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081158 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1357
Abstract
As internal curing self-healing agents in concrete repair, the basic properties of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs), such as water absorption and release properties, are generally affected by several factors, including temperature and humidity solution properties and SAP particle size, which regulate the curing effect [...] Read more.
As internal curing self-healing agents in concrete repair, the basic properties of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs), such as water absorption and release properties, are generally affected by several factors, including temperature and humidity solution properties and SAP particle size, which regulate the curing effect and the durability of cementitious composites. This study aimed to investigate the water retention capacities of SAPs in an alkaline environment over extended periods by incorporating liquid sodium silicate (SS) into SAP–water mixtures and examining the influence of temperature. The influence of SAP particle size on mortar’s water absorption capacity and mechanical behavior was investigated. Two mixing techniques for SAPs (dry and pre-wetting) were employed to assess the influence of SAP on cement mortars’ slump, mechanical properties, and cracking resistance. Four types of SAPs (SAP-a, SAP-b, SAP-c, and SAP-d), based on the molecular chains and particle size, were mixed with SS to study their water absorption over 30 days. The results showed that SAPs exhibit rapid water absorption within the first 30 min, exceeding 85% before reaching a saturation point, and the chemical and temperature variations in the water significantly affected water absorption and desorption. The filtration results revealed that SAP-d exhibited the slowest water release rate, retaining water for considerably longer than the other three types of SAPs. The mechanical properties of SAP mortar were reduced due to the addition of an SAP and the improved cracking resistance of the cement mortars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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20 pages, 2624 KiB  
Article
Advances in the Production of Sustainable Bacterial Nanocellulose from Banana Leaves
by David Dáger-López, Óscar Chenché, Rayner Ricaurte-Párraga, Pablo Núñez-Rodríguez, Joaquin Morán Bajaña and Manuel Fiallos-Cárdenas
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1157; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081157 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 2556
Abstract
Interest in bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has grown due to its purity, mechanical properties, and biological compatibility. To address the need for alternative carbon sources in the industrial production of BNC, this study focuses on banana leaves, discarded during harvesting, as a valuable source. [...] Read more.
Interest in bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has grown due to its purity, mechanical properties, and biological compatibility. To address the need for alternative carbon sources in the industrial production of BNC, this study focuses on banana leaves, discarded during harvesting, as a valuable source. Banana midrib juice, rich in nutrients and reducing sugars, is identified as a potential carbon source. An optimal culture medium was designed using a simplex-centroid mixing design and evaluated in a 10 L bioreactor. Techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were used to characterize the structural, thermal, and morphological properties of BNC. Banana midrib juice exhibited specific properties, such as pH (5.64), reducing sugars (15.97 g/L), Trolox (45.07 µM), °Brix (4.00), and antioxidant activity (71% DPPH). The model achieved a 99.97% R-adjusted yield of 6.82 g BNC/L. Physicochemical analyses revealed distinctive attributes associated with BNC. This approach optimizes BNC production and emphasizes the banana midrib as a circular solution for BNC production, promoting sustainability in banana farming and contributing to the sustainable development goals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Polymers: Processing, Modeling, Properties and Applications, 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 5525 KiB  
Article
Image Data-Centric Visual Feature Selection on Roll-to-Roll Slot-Die Coating Systems for Edge Wave Coating Defect Detection
by Yoonjae Lee, Junyoung Yun, Sangbin Lee and Changwoo Lee
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081156 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1326
Abstract
Roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing depends on a system’s capability to deposit high-quality coatings with precise thickness, width, and uniformity. Therefore, consistent maintenance requires the immediate and accurate detection of coating defects. This study proposes a primary color selection (PCS) method to detect edge defects [...] Read more.
Roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing depends on a system’s capability to deposit high-quality coatings with precise thickness, width, and uniformity. Therefore, consistent maintenance requires the immediate and accurate detection of coating defects. This study proposes a primary color selection (PCS) method to detect edge defects in R2R systems. This method addresses challenges associated with training data demands, complexity, and defect adaptability through a vision data-centric approach, ensuring precise edge coating defect detection. Using color information, high accuracy was achieved while minimizing data capacity requirements and processing time. Precise edge detection was facilitated by accurately distinguishing coated and noncoated regions by selecting the primary color channel based on color variability. The PCS method achieved superior accuracy (95.8%), outperforming the traditional weighted sum method (78.3%). This method is suitable for real-time detection in manufacturing systems and mitigates edge coating defects, thus facilitating quality control and production optimization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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16 pages, 6556 KiB  
Article
Unveiling the Nanoconfinement Effect on Crystallization of Semicrystalline Polymers Using Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulations
by Ji Yang, Yitong Chen, Zhangke Yang, Linjiale Dai, Hongseok Choi and Zhaoxu Meng
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1155; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081155 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1270
Abstract
Semicrystalline polymers under nanoconfinement show distinct structural and thermomechanical properties compared to their bulk counterparts. Despite extensive research on semicrystalline polymers under nanoconfinement, the nanoconfinement effect on the local crystallization process and the unique structural evolution of such polymers have not been fully [...] Read more.
Semicrystalline polymers under nanoconfinement show distinct structural and thermomechanical properties compared to their bulk counterparts. Despite extensive research on semicrystalline polymers under nanoconfinement, the nanoconfinement effect on the local crystallization process and the unique structural evolution of such polymers have not been fully understood. In this study, we unveil such effects by using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to study the crystallization process of a model semicrystalline polymer—polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)—under different levels of nanoconfinement induced by nanoparticles that are represented implicitly. We quantify in detail the evolution of the degree of crystallinity (XC) of PVA and examine distinct crystalline regions from simulation results. The results show that nanoconfinement can promote the crystallization process, especially at the early stage, and the interfaces between nanoparticles and polymer can function as crystallite nucleation sites. In general, the final XC of PVA increases with the levels of nanoconfinement. Further, nanoconfined cases show region-dependent XC with higher and earlier increase of XC in regions closer to the interfaces. By tracking region-dependent XC evolution, our results indicate that nanoconfinement can lead to a heterogenous crystallization process with a second-stage crystallite nucleation in regions further away from the interfaces. In addition, our results show that even under very high cooling rates, the nanoconfinement still promotes the crystallization of PVA. This study provides important insights into the underlying mechanisms for the intricate interplay between nanoconfinement and the crystallization behaviors of semicrystalline polymer, with the potential to guide the design and characterization of semicrystalline polymer-based nanocomposites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Characterization and Modeling of Polymer Nanocomposites)
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17 pages, 2992 KiB  
Article
Hydrophilic Modification of Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Capillary Membranes with Chemical Resistance by Constructing Three-Dimensional Hydrophilic Networks
by Mingpeng Hou, Qiuying Li and Yanchao Che
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1154; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081154 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1798
Abstract
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) capillary membranes, known for the great chemical resistance and thermal stability, are commonly used in membrane separation technologies. However, the strong hydrophobic property of PTFE limits its application in water filtration. This study introduces a method whereby acrylamide (AM), N, N-methylene [...] Read more.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) capillary membranes, known for the great chemical resistance and thermal stability, are commonly used in membrane separation technologies. However, the strong hydrophobic property of PTFE limits its application in water filtration. This study introduces a method whereby acrylamide (AM), N, N-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA), and vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES) undergo free radical copolymerization, followed by the hydrolysis-condensation of silane bonds, resulting in the formation of hydrophilic three-dimensional networks physically intertwined with the PTFE capillary membranes. The modified PTFE capillary membranes prepared through this method exhibit excellent hydrophilic properties, whose water contact angles are decreased by 24.3–61.2%, and increasing pure water flux from 0 to 1732.7–2666.0 L/m2·h. The enhancement in hydrophilicity of the modified PTFE capillary membranes is attributed to the introduction of hydrophilic groups such as amide bonds and siloxane bonds, along with an increase in surface roughness. Moreover, the modified PTFE capillary membranes exhibit chemical resistance, maintaining the hydrophilicity even after immersion in strong acidic (3 wt% HCl), alkaline (3 wt% NaOH), and oxidative (3 wt% NaClO) solutions for 2 weeks. In conclusion, this promising method yields modified PTFE capillary membranes with great hydrophilicity and chemical resistance, presenting substantial potential for applications in the field of water filtration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Polymer Thin Films and Surface Modification)
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15 pages, 2686 KiB  
Article
Advancing the Characterization of Recycled Polyolefin Blends with a Combined Experimental and Numerical Approach to Thermomechanical Behavior
by Pei Hao, Charmayne Siebers, Kim Ragaert and Francisco A. Gilabert
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1153; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081153 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1543
Abstract
The blending of polyolefins (POs), such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), is a growing area of research, particularly for recycling mixed polyolefin (MPO) waste through flotation sorting techniques. However, understanding the thermomechanical behavior of these recycled blends is challenging due to limitations [...] Read more.
The blending of polyolefins (POs), such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), is a growing area of research, particularly for recycling mixed polyolefin (MPO) waste through flotation sorting techniques. However, understanding the thermomechanical behavior of these recycled blends is challenging due to limitations in the existing characterization methods. This paper introduces a combined experimental and numerical method to accurately assess the complex mechanical behavior of high-density PE, PP, and their blends. We conducted detailed thermomechanical analyses using a high-speed stereo digital image correlation (DIC) system paired with an infrared camera to capture temperature variations alongside mechanical stress and strain. This approach allowed us to correct for distortions caused by necking and to derive accurate stress–strain relationships. We also applied a cutting-edge unified semi-crystalline polymer (USCP) model to simplify the analysis, focusing on the effects of strain rate and temperature, including self-heating and thermal softening phenomena. Our results, which closely match experimental observations of stress–strain behavior and temperature changes, offer new insights into the thermomechanical properties of PO blends, which are essential for advancing their practical applications in various fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Characterization of Recycled High-Performance Polymer Materials)
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13 pages, 2986 KiB  
Article
NIR-Mediated Deformation from a CNT-Based Bilayer Hydrogel
by Shijun Long, Chang Liu, Han Ren, Yali Hu, Chao Chen, Yiwan Huang and Xuefeng Li
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1152; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081152 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1129
Abstract
Shape-shifting polymers are widely used in various fields such as intelligent switches, soft robots and sensors, which require both multiple stimulus-response functions and qualified mechanical strength. In this study, a novel near-infrared-light (NIR)-responsible shape-shifting hydrogel system was designed and fabricated through embedding vinylsilane-modified [...] Read more.
Shape-shifting polymers are widely used in various fields such as intelligent switches, soft robots and sensors, which require both multiple stimulus-response functions and qualified mechanical strength. In this study, a novel near-infrared-light (NIR)-responsible shape-shifting hydrogel system was designed and fabricated through embedding vinylsilane-modified carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into particle double-network (P-DN) hydrogels by micellar copolymerisation. The dispersed brittle Poly(sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane-1-sulfonate) (PNaAMPS) network of the microgels can serve as sacrificial bonds to toughen the hydrogels, and the CNTs endow it with NIR photothermal conversion ability. The results show that the CNTs embedded in the P-DN hydrogels present excellent mechanical strength, i.e., a fracture strength of 312 kPa and a fracture strain of 357%. Moreover, an asymmetric bilayer hydrogel, where the active layer contains CNTs, can achieve 0°–110° bending deformation within 10 min under NIR irradiation and can realise complex deformation movement. This study provides a theoretical and experimental basis for the design and manufacture of photoresponsive soft actuators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multifunctional Hydrogel, 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 4371 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Geogrids Manufactured from Recycled Plastics for Slope Stabilization—A Case Study
by Lenin Vicuña, Ximena Jaramillo-Fierro, Paúl Eduardo Cuenca, Brenda Godoy-Paucar, Jorge Daniel Inga-Lafebre, Jose Luis Chavez Torres, Juan Fernando García, Diana Guaya and Juan Diego Febres
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081151 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1641
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the sustainable use of recycled plastics, specifically polypropylene (PP) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE), in the manufacture of geogrids for geotechnical and civil engineering applications. Plastics were collected from a recycling center, specifically targeting containers used for food, cleaning [...] Read more.
This study aimed to investigate the sustainable use of recycled plastics, specifically polypropylene (PP) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE), in the manufacture of geogrids for geotechnical and civil engineering applications. Plastics were collected from a recycling center, specifically targeting containers used for food, cleaning products, and other domestic packaging items. These plastics were sorted according to the Möbius triangle classification system, with HDPE (#2) and PP (#5) being the primary categories of interest. The research methodologically evaluates the mechanical properties of PP/HDPE (0/100, 25/75, 50/50, 75/25 and 100/0% w/w) composites through tensile and flexural tests, exploring various compositions and configurations of geogrids. The results highlight the superiority of pure recycled HDPE processed into 1.3 mm thick laminated yarns and hot air welded for 20 to 30 s, exhibiting a deformation exceeding 60% in comparison to the PP/HDPE composites. Through SolidWorks® Simulation, it was shown that the adoption of a trigonal geogrid geometry optimizes force distribution and tensile strength, significantly improving slope stabilization efficiency. Based on the results obtained, a laboratory-scale prototype geogrid was developed using an extrusion process. The results underscore the importance of careful composite design and yarn configuration selection to achieve the desired mechanical properties and performance in geogrid applications. It emphasizes the potential of recycled plastics as a viable and environmentally friendly solution for stabilizing slopes, contributing to the reduction in plastic waste and promoting sustainable construction practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Polymer Science)
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18 pages, 7491 KiB  
Article
Tribological Performance and Enhancing Mechanism of 3D Printed PEEK Coated with In Situ ZIF-8 Nanomaterial
by Xinchao Wang, Jiale Hu, Jiajia Liu, Yixin Liang, Lan Wu, Tie Geng, Shihua Liu and Yonggang Guo
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1150; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081150 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1184
Abstract
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is esteemed as a high-performance engineering polymer renowned for its exceptional mechanical properties and thermal stability. Nonetheless, the majority of polymer-based lubricating materials fail to meet the contemporary industrial demands for motion components regarding high speed, heavy loading, temperature [...] Read more.
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is esteemed as a high-performance engineering polymer renowned for its exceptional mechanical properties and thermal stability. Nonetheless, the majority of polymer-based lubricating materials fail to meet the contemporary industrial demands for motion components regarding high speed, heavy loading, temperature resistance, and precise control. Utilizing 3D printing technology to design and fabricate intricately structured components, developing high-performance polymer self-lubricating materials becomes imperative to fulfill the stringent operational requirements of motion mechanisms. This study introduces a novel approach employing 3D printing technology to produce PEEK with varying filling densities and conducting in situ synthesis of zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) nanomaterials on its surface to enhance PEEK’s frictional performance. The research discusses the synthetic methodology, characterization techniques, and tribological performance evaluation of in situ synthesized ZIF-8 nanomaterials on PEEK surfaces. The findings demonstrate a significant enhancement in frictional performance of the composite material under low-load conditions, achieving a minimum wear rate of 4.68 × 10−6 mm3/N·m compared to the non-grafted PEEK material’s wear rate of 1.091 × 10−5 mm3/N·m, an approximately 1.3 times improvement. Detailed characterization and analysis of the worn surface of the steel ring unveil the lubrication mechanism of the ZIF-8 nanoparticles, thereby presenting new prospects for the diversified applications of PEEK. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Preparation, Properties and Application of Polyurethane, Cellulose and Their Composites (2nd Edition))
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19 pages, 37842 KiB  
Article
Cure Kinetics and Thermal Decomposition Behavior of Novel Phenylacetylene-Capped Polyimide Resins
by Xuhai Xiong, Hongyu Guan, Baiyu Li, Shuai Yang, Wenqiang Li, Rong Ren, Jing Wang and Ping Chen
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1149; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081149 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Based on a novel phenylacetylene capped polyimide (PI) with unique high-temperature resistance, its curing kinetics and thermal decomposition behavior were investigated. The curing mechanism and kinetics were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and the activation energy (Ea) and pre-exponential [...] Read more.
Based on a novel phenylacetylene capped polyimide (PI) with unique high-temperature resistance, its curing kinetics and thermal decomposition behavior were investigated. The curing mechanism and kinetics were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and the activation energy (Ea) and pre-exponential factor (A) of the curing reaction were calculated based on the Kissinger equation, Ozawa equation, and Crane equation. According to the curve of conversion rate changing with temperature, the relationship between the dynamic reaction Ea and conversion rate (α) was calculated by the Friedman equation, Starink equation, and Ozawa–Flynn–Wall (O-F-W) equation, and the reaction Ea in different stages was compared with the results of molecular dynamics. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to analyze the thermal decomposition behavior of PI resins before and after curing. Temperatures at 5% and 20% mass loss (T5%, T20%), peak decomposition temperature (Tmax), residual carbon rate (RW), and integral process decomposition temperature (IPDT) were used to compare the thermal stability of PI resins and cured PI resins. The results display that the cured PI has excellent thermal stability. The Ea of the thermal decomposition reaction was calculated by the Coats–Redfern method, and the thermal decomposition behavior was analyzed. The thermal decomposition reaction of PI resins at different temperatures was simulated by molecular dynamics, the initial thermal decomposition reaction was studied, and the pyrolysis mechanism was analyzed more comprehensively and intuitively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Polymer Materials II)
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14 pages, 5334 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Mechanical and Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Samples Using Mica-Epoxy Acrylate Resin Composites—Via Digital Light Processing (DLP)
by Velmurugan Senthooran, Zixiang Weng and Lixin Wu
Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1148; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081148 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1841
Abstract
Digital light processing (DLP) techniques are widely employed in various engineering and design fields, particularly additive manufacturing. Acrylate resins utilized in DLP processes are well known for their versatility, which enables the production of defect-free 3D-printed products with excellent mechanical properties. This study [...] Read more.
Digital light processing (DLP) techniques are widely employed in various engineering and design fields, particularly additive manufacturing. Acrylate resins utilized in DLP processes are well known for their versatility, which enables the production of defect-free 3D-printed products with excellent mechanical properties. This study aims to improve the mechanical and thermal properties of 3D-printed samples by incorporating mica as an inorganic filler at different concentrations (5%, 10%, and 15%) and optimizing the dispersion by adding a KH570 silane coupling agent. In this study, mica was introduced as a filler and combined with epoxy acrylate resin to fabricate a 3D-printed sample. Varying concentrations of mica (5%, 10%, and 15% w/w) were mixed with the epoxy acrylate resin at a concentration of 10%, demonstrating a tensile strength increase of 85% and a flexural strength increase of 132%. Additionally, thermal characteristics were analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and successful morphological investigations were conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Digital light-processing technology was selected for its printing accuracy and cost-effectiveness. The results encompass comprehensive studies of the mechanical, thermal, and morphological aspects that contribute to the advancement of additive manufacturing technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Polymer Composites)
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