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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Horticultural and Floricultural Crops".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 July 2023) | Viewed by 28937

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Prof. Dr. Jinzhi Zhang

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Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
Interests: plant flowering; plant development; water stress; low temperature; flowering regulation; flower bud differentiation; leaf development
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Prof. Dr. Avi Sadka

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Department of Fruit Trees Sciences, Institute of Plant Sciences, ARO, The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Isreal
Interests: fruit growth and development; fruit quality; control of alternate bearing; practical aspects of citriculture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the life cycle of plants, the phase transition from vegetative growth to reproductive growth is very important. Many species have evolved multiple ways to adapt to the environment and endogenous factors to regulate flowering. It is now known that plant flowering is mainly regulated by five main signal pathways, namely, photoperiod, vernalization, age, autonomy, and gibberellin. In addition, it is also affected by some environmental factors such as drought stress, salt stress, cold stress, nutrient deficiency, heat damage, sugar budget, oxygen stress, and biotic stress. Furthermore, the quality and quantity of flowers determine the yield of crops and the quality of fruits. Flower development has been summarized as the ABC model and then extended to the ABCDE model. A large number of related genes have been cloned and functionally identified in annual plants and perennial plants.

Over recent years, enormous scientific progress has been made to understand the molecular basis of flowering and flower development. However, flowering and flower development still need to be further explored for future crop breeding.

This Special Issue will focus on “Flowering and flower development in plants”. We welcome novel research, reviews and opinion pieces covering all related topics.

Dr. Jinzhi Zhang
Prof. Dr. Avi Sadka
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Woody plants
Horticultural crops
Transcriptomics
Gene expression regulation
Protein interactions
Gene/genome edition
Bioinformatics.

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 191 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Flowering and Flower Development in Plants

by Min Chen and Jin-Zhi Zhang

Agronomy 2024, 14(2), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020256 - 25 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2813

Abstract

In the life cycle of a plant, flowering marks the transition from vegetative growth to reproductive development [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

14 pages, 4197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PsFT, PsTFL1, and PsFD Are Involved in Regulating the Continuous Flowering of Tree Peony (Paeonia × lemoinei ‘High Noon’)

by Limei Zhang, Fangyun Cheng, He Huang, Ziwen Geng and Chaoying He

Agronomy 2023, 13(8), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13082071 - 6 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1407

Abstract

Tree peonies are an economically important crop with flowers of high ornamental value. Most tree peony cultivars in gardens are once-flowering, and the continuous flowering (CF) trait has been revealed only in a few tree peony cultivars, such as ‘High Noon’ (‘HN’). However, the molecular mechanism underlying its CF remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that PsTFL1 functions as a floral inhibitor via the ectopic expression of PsTFL1 in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants. Our findings suggest that PsFT and PsTFL1 interact with PsFD, and the detected interactions may occur in the nucleus. Compared with the non-CF variety, the gene expression patterns of PsFT, PsTFL1, and PsFD during the flower development indicate that these three genes may be related to the CF habit in tree peony ‘HN’. These findings will aid future investigations of CF behavior and promote the breeding of tree peonies and other perennial woody plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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13 pages, 809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MIKC-Type MADS-Box Gene Family Discovery and Evolutionary Investigation in Rosaceae Plants

by Yue Qin, Gaopu Zhu, Fangdong Li, Lin Wang, Chen Chen and Han Zhao

Agronomy 2023, 13(7), 1695; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13071695 - 25 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1516

Abstract

MADS-box is an important transcriptional regulatory element in plant growth. The MIKC-type MADS-box genes play important roles. However, the identification and evolutionary investigation of MIKC-type MADS-box family members in Rosaceae have been inadequate. Therefore, based on whole-genome data from Prunus dulcis, Prunus salicina, Prunus armeniaca, Prunus persica, Prunus mira, and Amygdalus nana, we depicted the evolution and divergence patterns of MIKC-type MADS-box family genes. In this study, we found 222 MIKC-type MADS-box genes from six Rosaceae species. These genes were classified into five clades, and only motif 1 was identified across all MIKC-type MADS-box proteins, except PdMADS42 and PmiMADS16. The structural properties of these genes significantly varied in sequence lengths between species, despite the high levels of similarity in exon lengths and numbers. MIKC-type MADS-box genes were found to have mostly been limited through purifying selection processes. Remarkably divergent regions were found inside the MIKC-type MADS-box genes’ domains, where clade III displayed more conserved activities and may have retained more original functions over the evolutionary process; clade I, on the other hand, may have undergone substantial functional limitations in a specific functional role. These findings provide the groundwork for future research into the molecular evolutionary processes of the plant MIKC-type MADS-box gene family. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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13 pages, 6640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Petal Morphology Is Correlated with Floral Longevity in Paeonia suffruticosa

by Yingzi Guo, Yongjie Qiu, Huan Hu, Yanli Wang, Zhaorong Mi, Shulin Zhang, Songlin He and Wenqing Jia

Agronomy 2023, 13(5), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051372 - 14 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

Floral longevity (FL) is an important floral functional trait which is critical for flowering plants. FL shows great diversity among angiosperms; however, there is limited information on the mechanisms that influence differences in floral longevity, especially the relationship between petal anatomical traits and floral longevity. We aimed to examine (1) the relationships between petal anatomical traits and FL in tree peony cultivars and (2) the petal anatomical characteristics of longer FL cultivars. Eleven traits of six tree peony cultivars with different FL were investigated, including six water conservation traits (petal thickness, cuticle thickness, number of cell layers, mesophyll thickness, adaxial epidermis thickness and abaxial epidermis thickness), three water supply traits (vein density, number of xlylem vessels and xylem vessel diameter), petal fresh mass and petal dry mass across cultivars. There are significant differences in traits related to water conservation and water supply ability of tree peonies with different FL. Tree peony cultivars with long FL were characterized by the thicker Mesophyll, cuticles, adaxial and abaxial epidermis of the petals. There was a positive correlation between FL and vessel number and vessel diameter. These results suggest that the ability to retain water in flowers is associated with floral longevity. Petal traits related to water conservation and supply, including vein densities, mesophyll thickness, and epidermis thickness, are beneficial for prolonging the flower longevity in tree peonies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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21 pages, 4516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Profiling Provides Insights into Flavonoid Biosynthesis and Flower Coloring in Loropetalum chinense and Loropetalum chinense var. rubrum

by Xia Zhang, Li Zhang, Damao Zhang, Yang Liu, Ling Lin, Xingyao Xiong, Donglin Zhang, Ming Sun, Ming Cai, Xiaoying Yu and Yanlin Li

Agronomy 2023, 13(5), 1296; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051296 - 4 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1984

Abstract

The Loropetalum chinense and Loropetalum chinense var. rubrum are typical as well as traditional ornamental and Chinese herbal medicines in Asia; however, more information is needed on the mechanisms underlying their flower coloring. Here, we profiled the flavonoid metabolome and carried out full-length sequencing in addition to transcriptome analyses to investigate the flavonoid biosynthesis and global transcriptome changes among different petal coloring cultivars of L. chinense and L. chinense var. rubrum. The total anthocyanins in addition to the RHSCC values and CIE 1976 L*a*b* values of petals were highly consistent with petal color. Moreover, a total of 207 flavonoid components were identified. Of these, 13 flavonoid compounds were considered significantly different expression compounds highly consistent with color information in the 4 samples. Meanwhile, the first reference full-length transcriptome of L. chinense var. rubrum was built, which had 171,783 high-quality nonredundant transcripts with correcting with next-generation sequencing (NGS). Among them, 52,851 transcripts were annotated in the seven databases of NR, KOG, GO, NT, Pfam, Swiss-Port, and KEGG. Combined with NGS analyses, the DETs involved in flavonoids and anthocyanins contributed greatest to the flower coloring. Additionally, the different expressions of eight LcDFRs and four LcANS genes were positively correlated with flavonoid biosynthesis, and the four LcBZ1 as well as one Lc3Mat1 were positively correlated with the content of seven anthocyanins revealed by coupling with metabolomics and transcriptomics analyses. Together, these results were used to mine candidate genes by analyzing flower coloring changes at comprehensive metabolic and transcriptomic levels in L. chinense and L. chinense var. rubrum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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12 pages, 2458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overexpression of Two MADS-Box Genes from Lagerstroemia speciosa Causes Early Flowering and Affects Floral Organ Development in Arabidopsis

by Lichen Yang, Zhuojiao Li, Tangchun Zheng, Jia Wang, Tangren Cheng and Qixiang Zhang

Agronomy 2023, 13(4), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13040976 - 25 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1687

Abstract

Lagerstroemia speciosa is an important ornamental plant, and there is only one double-petaled variety, ‘Yunshang’, produced by natural mutation, in the whole genus of Lagerstroemia. The members of the MADS-box family play important roles in floral organ development. However, little is known about the biological function of the MADS-box gene in L. speciosa. In our study, two MADS-box genes (LsAG2 and LsDEF1) were isolated from L. speciosa, and their expression levels in different tissues and developmental stages were analyzed by RT-qPCR. Subcellular localization showed that LsAG2 and LsDEF1 are localized in the nucleus. The overexpression of LsAG2 and LsDEF1 in Arabidopsis thaliana caused transgenic plants to exhibit different phenotypes, such as floral organ aberrations, early flowering, and dwarf plants, and resulted in the up-regulation of endogenous genes related to flowering (i.e., AP1, PI, FLC, FUL, LFY, and FT). Our results provide a theoretical basis for the flowering time, flower development, and genetic improvement of double-petaled flowers in the genus of Lagerstroemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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15 pages, 3570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Analysis of the Differences in Leaf Color Formation during Stage Transitions in Populus × euramericana ‘Zhonghuahongye’

by Mengjiao Chen, Hui Li, Wan Zhang, Lin Huang and Jingle Zhu

Agronomy 2022, 12(10), 2396; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102396 - 3 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1878

Abstract

To explore the mechanism underlying the leaf color variation of Populus × euramericana ‘Zhonghuahongye’ (‘Zhonghong’ poplar) leaves at different maturation stages, we used ‘Zhonghong’ poplar leaves and analyzed the L* (lightness), a* (redness), and b* (yellowness) color difference values and the pigment contents in the three maturation stages. The Illumina HiSeqTM 2000 high−throughput sequencing platform was used for transcriptome sequencing analysis, and leaf color changes during stage transitions were preliminarily explored. Overall, with the increase in L* and b* during leaf development, the a*, C* (colour saturation), and chromatic values decreased, the total anthocyanin content decreased, and the chlorophyll and carotenoid content increased. A total of 11,868 differentially expressed genes were identified by transcriptome sequencing. Comparing the expression differences of structural genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis in the leaves at different stages, we identified 5612 genes in the R1 vs. R2 comparison, 10,083 in the R1 vs. R3 comparison, and 6068 in the R2 vs. R3 comparison (R1, R2, R3 refer to samples obtained on 1 April, 6 April, and 11 April, respectively). Key genes such as DFR (Dihydroflavanol 4−reductase), ANS (anthocyanidin synthase), FLS(flavonol synthase) , CHS(chalcone synthase), BZ1(Bronze 1), bHLH35, and bHLH63 were identified. These structural genes and those that encode transcription factors may be related to the regulation of anthocyanin synthesis. Here, the key genes related to leaf color change in ‘Zhonghong’ poplar were discovered, providing an important genetic basis for the subsequent genetic improvement of ‘Zhonghong’ poplar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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11 pages, 2434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Regulating Measures on the Floral and Nutritional Physiology of Lemon

by Yuxia Du, Jinxue Li, Jianmei Dong, Chengxiao Hu, Danping Li, Qiling Tan, Jinzhi Zhang, Jing Li, Xianyan Zhou, Chunhua Zhu and Xinpu Lai

Agronomy 2022, 12(10), 2381; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102381 - 1 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2031

Abstract

Lemon is an important economic crop in the world and can bloom several times each year. The Dehong prefecture of Yunnan province is one of the main lemon-producing areas in China, and is a suitable area for planting high-quality lemons in China. However, the hot and rainy summers in Yunnan are not conducive to flower bud differentiation, which leads to low lemon yield. Therefore, normal flower bud differentiation is important to guarantee lemon production and quality. In this study, we selected some lemon trees for a pot experiment, and we sprayed the lemon leaves with gibberellin and paclobutrazol to regulate lemon flower formation. We set four separate concentration gradients for each regulator: 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/L. The PBZ concentration gradients were 200, 400, 600, and 1200 mg/L. After the experiment, we determined and analyzed the morphological index and fruit quality of the lemon trees. The results showed that under the same cultivation and management conditions, spraying paclobutrazol substantially inhibited the growth of lemon shoots, increased the fruit setting rate, and improved the fruit yield. However, gibberellin considerably reduced the number of lemon flowering branches and promoted the vegetative growth of the lemons. When the concentration of paclobutrazol was 600 mg/L, the amount of lemon fruits reached the maximum, which remarkably increased the titratable acid and soluble solids contents of the fruit and ultimately increased the fruit quality compared with the control. Altogether, selecting the appropriate concentration of regulators to control the flowering and fruit setting of fruit trees is important and has value in guiding actual production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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17 pages, 3602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differentially Expressed Transcription Factors during Male and Female Cone Development in Pinus halepensis

by Gilad Reisfeld, Adi Faigenboim, Hagar Fox, Hanita Zemach, Leor Eshed Williams and Rakefet David-Schwartz

Agronomy 2022, 12(7), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071588 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3540

Abstract

The molecular regulation of induction and development of reproductive organs is well established in angiosperms, while it is slowly accumulating in gymnosperms. Here, we conducted comparative transcriptomic profiles at different stages of male and female cone development in Pinus halepensis. Our aim was to reveal transcription factor encoding genes involved in reproductive induction and development. For accurate developmental stage identification, histological analysis preceded the molecular analysis. The flowering induction genes FT/TFL were expressed mainly at the late developmental stages of the male cone, suggesting involvement in vegetative bud dormancy instead of flowering induction. The male cone development was associated with the expression of the C-class PhMADS2, and the B-class genes PhDAL11 and PhDAL13, while the female cone development was associated with the expression of the C-class MADS1 and DAL14 genes. This study adds valuable knowledge to the profile of transcription factors and MADS-box genes regulating cone development in gymnosperms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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15 pages, 4371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morpho-Physiological and Transcriptome Analyses Provide Insights into the Wizened Bud Formation in Pear Trees

by Wei Du, Chunmei Shi, Syed Bilal Hussain, Mingqiu Li, Jing Fan, Qiliang Chen, Jingguo Zhang, Yongzhong Liu, Xiaoping Yang and Hongju Hu

Agronomy 2022, 12(2), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020484 - 15 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

Wizened buds are frequently observed in pear (Pyrus spp.) trees, which greatly reduces the yield. However, little is known about the mechanism of wizened bud formation. Here, we analyzed physiological and transcriptomic differences between normal buds and wizened buds of ‘710’ pear trees. The results indicated that the sorbitol and boron (B) contents, during bud differentiation, were significantly reduced in wizened buds. The microscopic observation and transcriptome analysis revealed that the collapse of the organ structure and cell wall loosening process may have a close relation with wizened bud formation. Moreover, reduced transcript levels of PpyMYB39.1 and its downstream genes (PpyHT1, PpyHT2, PpyPMEI1 and PpyPMEI2) were found in wizened buds. However, the transcript levels of pentose and glucuronate interconversion pathway genes (PpyPME3, PpyPL18.1, PpyPL18.2, PpyPG1 and PpyPG2) and the concentration of pectin-degradation-related enzymes were increased in wizened buds. Correspondingly, the pectin concentration was significantly reduced in wizened buds. Taken together, PpyMYB39.1 may promote pectin degradation and decrease carbohydrate transport by regulating its downstream genes and is supposed to play a vital role in the wizened bud formation resulting from the cell wall loosening process. Our study provides fundamental insights into wizened bud formation and strategies to reduce the wizened bud occurrence in pear trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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12 pages, 5217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Petal Morphological and Physiological Characteristics of Styrax japonicus during the Flowering Period

by Chen Chen, Hong Chen, Ming Ni and Fangyuan Yu

Agronomy 2021, 11(8), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11081498 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2533

Abstract

Styrax japonicus is a small ornamental tree with medicinal values, although its flowering period is short. To date, information about the morphological and physiological characteristics of the petals during the flowering period is limited. In this study, we observed the structure of the petals at the full flowering stage with a scanning electron microscope and detected the contents of nutrients, minerals, and endogenous hormones and the activities of enzymes at different flowering stages. The results showed that the content of soluble sugar exhibited an ‘increase-decrease’ trend, whereas the contents of soluble protein, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and abscisic acid (ABA) showed a ‘decrease-increase’ pattern. The content of starch descended continuously, but the contents of potassium (K), gibberellic acid (GA₃), indoleacetic acid (IAA), and malondialdehyde (MDA) ascended continuously. The activities of peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) first rose and then declined during the flowering period. Higher contents of soluble sugar, N, K, and IAA promoted S. japonicus flowering; meanwhile, lower contents of starch, soluble protein, P, and GA₃ in addition to the lower activity of SOD might be some of the causes of the short flowering period. This work will serve as the foundation for a scientific technique to utilize the flowers and extend the flowering period in S. japonicus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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Review

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27 pages, 1693 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Drought and Temperature Stress in the Regulation of Flowering Time in Annuals and Perennials

by Min Chen, Tian-Liang Zhang, Chun-Gen Hu and Jin-Zhi Zhang

Agronomy 2023, 13(12), 3034; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13123034 - 11 Dec 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2947

Abstract

Plants experience a variety of adverse environments during their vegetative growth and reproductive development, and to ensure that they complete their life cycle successfully, they have evolved specific defense mechanisms to cope with unfavorable environments. Flowering is a vital developmental stage and an important determinant of productivity in the lifetime of plants, which can be vulnerable to multiple abiotic stresses. Exposure to stress during this period can have dramatic effects on flower physiological and morphological development, which may ultimately lead to a substantial loss of yield in seed-producing plants. However, there has been increasing research evidence that diverse abiotic stresses, ranging from drought, low temperature, and heat stress can promote or delay plant flowering. This review focuses on how plants alter developmental direction to balance between survival and productivity under drought and extreme temperature conditions. Starting from the perspective of the functional analysis of key flowering-regulated genes, it is of great help for researchers to quickly gain a deeper understanding of the regulatory effects of abiotic stress on the flowering process, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms, and to improve the regulatory network of abiotic-stress-induced flowering. Additionally, the important agronomic significance of the interaction between abiotic stress and the flowering regulation of perennial plants under climate change conditions is also discussed after summarizing studies on the mechanisms of stress-induced flowering in annual plants. This review aims to clarify the effects of abiotic stresses (mainly drought and temperature) on plant flowering, which are significant for future productivity increase under unfavorable environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flowering and Flower Development in Plants)

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