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Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical and Molecular Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2023) | Viewed by 24895

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ana Carolina Gonçalves

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CICS-UBI – Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
Interests: pharmacognosy; natural products; phytochemical analysis; high-performance liquid chromatography; phytochemistry; herbal medicine; traditional medicine; biological activities; nutraceuticals; plant extracts; antimicrobials; antioxidants; natural product research; phytomedicine; phytopharmacology; antibacterials; antifungals; antiparasitics
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Prof. Dr. Andreia Filipa Silvestre Duarte

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Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
Interests: essential oils; antioxidants; antimicrobials; anti-quorum sensing; natural products; plants; antibiotics; synergism; anti-biofilm; antibiotic susceptibility; genetic diversity; adhesion; biofilm; quorum sensing; bactericidal activity, anti-biofilm activity; antimicrobial properties; antibiotic resistance; antifungals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over recent years, the efficacy of antibiotics has decreased, mainly due to the emergence of drug-resistant micro-organisms. Therefore, several efforts have been made to search for new alternatives that are able to diminish infectious ailments. Supported by scientific studies, medicinal plants have been a target of intensive research, given their richness in several phytochemicals (e.g., phenolics, volatile organic compounds) which can work as synergic and offer many benefits, including improving the efficacy of conventional pharmaceuticals, decreasing their side effects, and counteracting multidrug resistance. Additionally, they can also be used as a model for developing new drug scaffolds.

This Special Issue will publish high-quality, original research and review papers, in the overlapping fields of:

Antibacterial properties of characterized plant extracts (e.g., essential oils, infusions, hydroethanolic extracts, …) against determined human diseases;
Biological potential of phytochemicals extracted from plant extracts, alone or combined with other active ingredients and/or antibiotics;
Strategies and new technologies to enhance the antibacterial potential of plant extracts, e.g., their (nano)encapsulation with liposomes;
The structure–activity relationship between the antibacterial activity and phytochemicals content;
Health-promoting properties and practical use of antibacterial phytochemicals.

Dr. Ana Carolina Gonçalves
Prof. Dr. Andreia Filipa Silvestre Duarte
Guest Editors

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Keywords

antibacterial activity
minimum inhibitory concentration
plant extracts
phytocompounds
pathogens inhibition
natural compounds

Published Papers (12 papers)

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16 pages, 2211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ovicidal Effect on Haemonchus contortus of Extract Partitions Shrubby Plants of the Tropical Dry Forest and Potentially Active Compounds Identification by UHPLC-Q/Orbitrap/MS/MS

by Néstor Jaime Romero-Jola, Jaime Andrés Cubides-Cárdenas, Natalia Escobar and Mario J. Simirgiotis

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(12), 7147; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127147 - 14 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1194

Abstract

The in vitro anthelmintic effect of the extracts on Haemonchus contortus (H. contortus) of three forage species in the tropical dry forest is known; however, there is no information about the effects of the extract partitions, nor their chemical composition. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the in vitro ovicidal activity of H. contortus in extract partitions of the species Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, and Pithecellobium dulce, and to identify the compounds present in the extract partitions with the highest activity by employing ultra HPLC Quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometry. Four extract partitions, hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and hydroethanolic from the three forage species were assessed in an inhibition of egg hatching (IEH) assay. The extract partitions with the highest anthelmintic activity (AA) were subjected to analysis, from which the tentative identification of the compounds was established. The extract partitions, including dichloromethane from Gliricidia sepium, ethyl acetate from Leucaena leucocephala, and hydroethanolic from Pithecellobium dulce showed a greater anthelmintic effect, with IC₅₀ values of 0.39, 0.86, and 0.27 mg/mL for the IEH, respectively. Metabolites with in vitro AA potential included flavonoids, fatty acid esters, hydroxycinnamic acids, organic oxygenated compounds of the benzene class and substituted derivatives, phenolic glycosides, and phenols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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18 pages, 646 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Exploring the Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Antimicrobial Capacity of Phenolics from Blueberries and Sweet Cherries

by Ana C. Gonçalves, Ana R. Nunes, Sara Meirinho, Miguel Ayuso-Calles, Rocío Roca-Couso, Raúl Rivas, Amílcar Falcão, Gilberto Alves, Luís R. Silva and José David Flores-Félix

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(10), 6348; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106348 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

(1) Background: Nowadays, special attention has been paid to red and purple fruits, including blueberries and sweet cherries, since they are highly attractive to consumers due to their organoleptic properties, standing out due to their vibrant red and purple colours and sweet flavour, and nutritional value. (2) Methods: The present study evaluated the phenolic profile of phenolic-enriched extracts from blueberries and sweet cherries and explored their antioxidant potential against DPPH, superoxide and nitric oxide radicals, and ferric species, and their potential to inhibit the α-glucosidase enzyme. Furthermore, their antimicrobial activity was also determined by microdilution method against four Gram-positive strains (Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Listeria monocytogenes LMG 16779, and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923) and five Gram-negative strains (Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica ATCC 13311 serovar Typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883, Proteus mirabilis CECT 170, Serratia marcescens CECT 159, and Acinetobacter baumannii LMG 1025). (3) Results: By chromatographic techniques, eight anthocyanins were detected in blueberry coloured fraction and total extract, and five anthocyanins were detected in sweet cherry total extract and coloured fraction, while quercetin aglycone and chlorogenic acids were the dominant non-coloured compounds in blueberries and sweet cherries, respectively. All extracts demonstrated significant antioxidant properties, as well as the ability to inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase enzyme and the development of various microorganisms. (4) Conclusion: The obtained data evidence the promising biological potential of blueberries and sweet cherries, being highly correlated with the presence of phenolic compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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11 pages, 1890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibiofilm Effect of Siegesbeckia pubescens against S. mutans According to Environmental Factors

by Shengdao Zheng, Arce Defeo Bellere, Sarang Oh, Duna Yu, Minzhe Fang and Tae-Hoo Yi

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(10), 6179; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106179 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 954

Abstract

Siegesbeckia pubescens has long been used as a traditional medicine in Asia. In traditional prescriptions, it has been used mainly for its anti-inflammatory properties. Still, comparative research on its activity according to its origin has not yet been conducted. This study used estimated 30% ethanol extracts of S. pubescens from Yeongcheon, Chungju, and Suncheon in Korea for their antibacterial properties, glucosyltransferase (GTase) activity, organic acid production, biofilm formation, and antioxidant properties. As a result, it was determined that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against periodontitis-associated pathogens was ≥0.2 mg/mL, the antibiofilm effect was ≥80%, and the minimum IC₅₀ values of the extracts were 39.64 μg/mL for DPPH and 172.1 μg/mL for the ABTS radical, and 17.73 μg/mL for SOD-like activity. The comparative analysis of climate data confirmed that the activities were inversely proportional to precipitation and humidity and directly proportional to temperature. Therefore, in light of the effect of the environment on the production of more effective and superior varieties, it is anticipated that the value of S. pubescens as a preventive treatment for periodontitis will increase and contribute to the development of more effective varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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18 pages, 3087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combinations of Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) and Rue (Ruta gravolens) Plant Extracts with Lytic Phages: A Study on Interactions

by Xymena Stachurska, Małgorzata Mizielińska, Magdalena Ordon and Paweł Nawrotek

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(7), 4575; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13074575 - 4 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1542

Abstract

The use of combined biocontrol strategies to combat bacterial-related issues is an increasingly popular approach. Therefore, a novel investigation was performed, where interactions of lytic bacteriophages (MS2, T4 and phi6) and methanolic plant extracts (Echinacea purpurea (EP) and Ruta graveolens (RG)) in the bacterial environment have been examined to understand their application potential and limitations. Due to the complexity of these interactions, many up-to-date techniques were used (microdilution method, phage extract coincubation assay, static interactions synographies and dynamic growth profile experiments in a bioreactor). As a result of our study, antagonism interactions were observed: EP and RG extracts showed antiphage and bacterial stimulating activity. Effects caused by low extract concentrations on microorganisms depended on the species of phage and bacteria, while high concentrations suppressed bacterial lysis in general. Moreover, interactions observed in the static environment differed from those performed in a dynamic environment, showing the importance of performing multiple analyses when investigating such complex mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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14 pages, 2079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Activity of Tanacetum vulgare L. Extracts against Clinical Isolates of Bovine Mastitis

by Renāte Šukele, Ance Bārzdiņa, Rudīte Koka, Ingus Skadins, Līga Lauberte, Agnese Brangule, Liga Kovalcuka and Dace Bandere

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 3369; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053369 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

A bovine mastitis is an infectious disease, which is usually treated with antibiotics. Alternatively, herbal medicine has been proposed due to bacterial resistance. The aim of this study was to determine the antibacterial activity of the acetonic and ethanolic extracts of dried flowers and leaves of Tanacetum vulgare L. against bovine mastitis-inducing clinical isolates such as Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Serratia liquefaciens, Staphylococcus aureus, and reference cultures of S. aureus and E. coli. The extracts of T. vulgare showed partial antibacterial activity against tested strains of S. aureus. The MIC and MBC values of a 70% ethanol extract of flowers (MIC = 3.4 mg/mL, MBC = 3.4–6.8 mg/mL) were lower than for the 70% ethanol extract of leaves (MIC = 15.7–31.4 mg/mL, MBC = 62.9–125.9 mg/mL). The flower extracts showed low activity against E. coli (MIC = 53.9 mg/mL, MBC = 53.9–107.8 mg/mL) and S. agalactiae (MIC, MBC = 53.9 mg/mL). T. vulgare leaf extracts had minimal antibacterial effects against Streptococcus strains (MIC = 31.4–62.9 mg/mL, MBC = 53.9–125.9 mg/mL) and Serratia liquefaciens (MIC, MBC = 125.9 mg/mL). However, flower extracts had a higher phenolic content that did not correlate with antibacterial effects. T. vulgare flower and leaf extracts could be combined to obtain broader antibacterial effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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10 pages, 2602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Tolerance of Different Strains of Human Pathogenic Bacteria to Acidic Environments

by Priscilla Porto-Figueira, José S. Câmara, Ana M. Vigário and Jorge A. M. Pereira

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(1), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010305 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

It is known that many bacteria are susceptible to low pH, but it is less clear how the acid nature influences this susceptibility. The objective of this work was to evaluate the susceptibility of selected bacteria to different low pH conditions and to understand if their tolerance is affected by the type of acid (organic vs inorganic) in the media acidification. Strains of different species of human pathogenic bacteria were cultivated at different acidic conditions, using organic or inorganic acids. Overall, we verified that tolerance to acidic conditions is dependent on the type of acid used to acidify the growing medium, organic or inorganic. The strains analysed, although having different tolerance to low pH, were shown to be more susceptible to organic than inorganic acids. This result shows that beyond the pH of the media, the nature of the acid affects bacterial growth. Such a result has consequences in the evaluation of the efficiency of an antibacterial extract, which should take into consideration the differential susceptibility of bacteria to low pHs obtained using organic or inorganic acids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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15 pages, 3617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Piper nigrum Fruit Extract as an Antibiotic Resistance Reversal Agent in MDR Bacteria

by Maryam Salah Ud Din, Umar Farooq Gohar, Uzma Hameed, Hamid Mukhtar, Adriana Morar, Viorel Herman and Kálmán Imre

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(24), 12542; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412542 - 7 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1881

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance development and spread in clinical pathogens is an immense threat that has already outpaced the discovery and development of novel and more effective antibiotic drugs. Recently the focus has been shifted to medicinal plants as novel therapeutic options for reversing antibiotic resistance by targeting different resistance mechanisms. Piper nigrum is a plant that has the potential to reverse antibiotic resistance and increase the efficacy of the current drugs. In the present study, seven different antibiotics, clindamycin, gentamicin, levofloxacin, amikacin, tigecycline, imipenem, and tetracycline, were used against antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. Antibiotic resistance reversal analysis was tested by the AST disc method. Increased zones of inhibition of S. aureus by four antibiotics, clindamycin (9 mm), gentamicin (7 mm), levofloxacin (9 mm), and amikacin (9 mm) were recorded after using P. nigrum extract. In addition, the use of P. nigrum extract also increased the zone of inhibition of S. typhi with amikacin (11 mm), gentamicin (10 mm), tigecycline (9 mm), levofloxacin (11 mm), and imipenem (10 mm). This study suggests that P. nigrum extracts can be used as natural antibiotic resistance reversal agents that increase the effectiveness of current antibiotics and can reverse antibiotic resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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14 pages, 4398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Growth Dynamics in Minced Meat Enriched with Plant Powders

by Julia Koskar, Kadrin Meremäe, Tõnu Püssa, Dea Anton, Terje Elias, Reelika Rätsep, Mihkel Mäesaar, Karmen Kapp and Mati Roasto

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(21), 11292; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122111292 - 7 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2159

Abstract

Plant powders with antimicrobial properties can be used in food manufacturing and must comply with the demands of consumers regarding microbiological safety, nutritional value, and sensory properties of foods. The present study aimed to assess the microbial growth inhibitory ability of different plant powders, including by-products of horticultural primary processing (e.g., pomace) in raw and cooked minced pork. The total counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, pseudomonads, yeasts, and moulds were studied to assess the microbial growth dynamics in meat samples. Additionally, for the plant powders, which were able to suppress the microbial growth in a total counts dynamics study, the growth potential of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat (RTE) minced meat samples was estimated by challenge testing. The results showed that the most effective combinations of plant powders in raw minced pork, in relation to the total counts of microorganisms, were 3% apple+1% onion+2% blackcurrant berries (Apple+On+BCber); 3% apple+1% garlic+2% tomato (Apple+Ga+Tom); and 3% apple+2% tomato+1% rhubarb petioles (Apple+Tom+Rhub). However, challenge tests revealed that some plant powders were unable to inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes. The lowest L. monocytogenes growth potential (δ = 2.74 log cfu/g) was determined for cooked minced pork samples enriched with 2% rhubarb petioles, followed by Apple+On+BCber (δ = 3.63 log cfu/g) and Apple+Tom+Rhub (δ = 3.74 log cfu/g). In minced pork samples without plant additives, the L. monocytogenes growth potential was 7.30 log cfu/g. In conclusion, blends of plant powders may have good potential for developing meat products with acceptable microbiological quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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13 pages, 923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Spirulina (Formerly Arthrospira) Maxima against Ethanol-Induced Damage in Rat Liver

by Angélica Pérez-Juárez, José Leopoldo Aguilar-Faisal, Araceli Posadas-Mondragón, José Angel Santiago-Cruz, Cornelio Barrientos-Alvarado, María Angélica Mojica-Villegas, Germán Alberto Chamorro-Cevallos and José A. Morales-González

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(17), 8626; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12178626 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1619

Abstract

Spirulina (formerly Arthrospira) maxima (SP) is a cyanobacterium reported to have great nutritional and pharmacological potential. The objective of this study was to evaluate the protective properties of SP against ethanol-induced toxicity. Male Wistar rats were used in the study and subjected to a 70% partial hepatectomy (PH); they were then divided into five groups. During the experiment, animals in two groups drank an aqueous solution of ethanol (EtOH) (40%, v/v). Additionally, they were administered an SP extract daily at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight intragastrically. To explore possible mechanisms of action, we examined antioxidant defense enzymes, as well as serum biochemical parameters and histopathological changes in the liver. SP administration normalized elevated glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, in addition to increased catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) enzymes. Alterations in biochemical parameters were observed in the groups with PH treated with EtOH associated with a reduction in cholesterol and albumin levels, while glucose and triglyceride levels increased. The histological study supported the protective activity of SP, reducing apoptosis, necrosis, and congestion in the liver. Our findings demonstrated a protective effect of SP against EtOH that is related to less inflammation, a lesser antioxidant effect, and less free radical scavenging activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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22 pages, 9729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Silico Study and Excito-Repellent Activity of Vitex negundo L. Essential Oil against Anopheles gambiae

by Bamidele J. Okoli, Wafa Ali Eltayb, Gideon A. Gyebi, Amr R. Ghanam, Zakari Ladan, Joseph C. Oguegbulu and Mohnad Abdalla

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7500; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157500 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1886

Abstract

(1) Background: Essential oil from Vitex negundo is known to have repellent and insecticidal properties toward the Anopheles gambiae and this is linked to its monoterpene and sesquiterpene content. In this work, an effort is made to delineate the constitution of V. negundo essential oil (VNEO) and their interaction with odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) of A. gambiae and hence access its repellent efficiency as cost-effective and safer malaria vector control alternatives. (2) Methods: Anopheles species authentication was performed by genomic DNA analysis and was subjected to behavioral analysis. GC-MS profiling was used to identify individual components of VNEO. Anopheles OBPs were obtained from the RCSB protein data bank and used for docking studies. Determination of ligand efficiency metrics and QSAR studies were performed using Hyper Chem Professional 8.0.3, and molecular dynamics simulations were performed using the Desmond module. (3) Results: GC-MS analysis of VNEO showed 28 compounds (monoterpenes, 80.16%; sesquiterpenes, 7.63%; and unknown constituents, 10.88%). The ligand efficiency metrics of all four ligands against the OBP 7 were within acceptable ranges. β-selinene (−12.2 kcal/mol), β-caryophellene (−9.5 kcal/mol), sulcatone (−10.9 kcal/mol), and α-ylangene (−9.3 kcal/mol) showed the strongest binding affinities for the target proteins. The most stable hydrophobic interactions were observed between β-selinene (Phe111 and Phe120), Sulcatone (Phe54 and Phe120), and α-ylangene (Phe111), while only sulcatone (Tyr49) presented H-bond interactions in the simulated environment. (4) Conclusions: Sulcatone and β-caryophyllene presented the best log p values, 6.45 and 5.20, respectively. These lead phytocompounds can be used in their purest as repellent supplement or as a natural anti-mosquito agent in product formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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13 pages, 14060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities of Gaultheria Trichophylla Royle

by Shah Zaman, Fakhria A. Al-Joufi, Muhammad Zafar and Muhammad Zahoor

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(14), 6921; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12146921 - 8 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1528

Abstract

Gaultheria trichophylla fruit is used by the indigenous people to treat asthma, headache, and as an appetizer in the alpine and sub-alpine regions of Western Himalaya. No studies exist on the antimicrobial significance of this species. The current study describes the phytochemical composition, in vitro cytotoxic, and antimicrobial effects of different extracts of Gaultheria trichophylla. In antimicrobial assay, four different bacterial strains (Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus) as well as four fungal strains (Helminthosporium solani, Fusarium solani, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus fumigates) were used. Qualitative phytochemical screening showed the existence of different active compounds. Quantitative phytochemical screening showed the existence of phenolic contents in the range from 3.27 ± 0.44 mg GE/g to 14.17 ± 088 mg GE/g, whereas flavonoids were from 8.08 ± 0.48 mg QE/g to 26.9 ± 0.23 mg QE/g. The elemental analysis quantified essential minerals of life importance such as Na (3.24 ± 0.05 µgg⁻¹), Mg (1.93 ± 0.08 µgg⁻¹), and Ca (1.83 ± 0.056 µgg⁻¹), while none of the heavy metal levels were high from the permissible limit of WHO. Cytotoxic assay showed moderate activity in terms of LC50 of (50 μg/mL) for methanolic extracts. Antifungal assay of methanolic and other extracts against different tested fungal strains showed a zone of inhibitions from 29 ± 1.154% to 86.66 ± 0.09%. As an antibacterial, the MIC values were from 7.5 mg/mL to 15 mg/mL for the tested extracts. The observed biological potentials were at the expense of its phytochemical composition, however, further confirmation in animal models and responsible phytochemical isolations in pure form is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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Review

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24 pages, 613 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in the Antibacterial Activities of Citrullus lanatus (Watermelon) By-Products

by Vassilis Athanasiadis, Theodoros Chatzimitakos, Dimitrios Kalompatsios, Konstantina Kotsou, Martha Mantiniotou, Eleni Bozinou and Stavros I. Lalas

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 11063; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911063 - 8 Oct 2023

Viewed by 3338

Abstract

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a popular fruit worldwide due to its refreshing taste and its high water content (92% of its weight). According to the phytochemistry of the plant, carbohydrates, saponins, glycosides, steroids, alkaloids, polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins can be detected in watermelons. C. lanatus generates by-products and, as such, can be characterized by its seeds and rinds. These by-products’ phytochemicals are nutritious and functional. Watermelon seeds contain many phytochemical compounds with beneficial biological activities, according to numerous scientific studies. This fact promotes watermelon seed consumption and encourages food and pharmaceutical companies to use this innovative ingredient. The watermelon rind has all the nutrients of the pulp and also more antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive substances. Numerous studies show that watermelon peel is high in fiber and nutrients and can be used in a variety of culinary products. These residues need to be utilized for creating innovative functional food products with added value for the food chain’s sustainability. More studies of watermelon by-products are required to promote functional food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications. This review aims to shed light on the underutilized portion of watermelon and its chemical properties in order to pave the way for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Activity of Plant Extracts)

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