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Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction

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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2026 | Viewed by 28660

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Kepa Iturralde

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Guest Editor

Chair of Digital Transformation in Construction, University of Stuttgart, 70174 Stuttgart, Germany
Interests: robotics; automation; digitalization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Thomas Bock

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Guest Editor

Emeritus Professor Doctor, Chair of Building Realization and Robotics, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Interests: construction robotics; robotic prefabrication of building components; automated on site construction robotics; ambient integrated robotics for aging society; robot oriented design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Construction sector needs a transformation. There are several reasons. For instance, the productivity rate in Construction is below other sectors such as Manufacturing Industry. Moreover, the Construction sector is facing a lack of personnel in all of its phases, from planning to execution. Finally, the accident rate is very high in Construction. For all these reasons, digitization, automation, and robotics are playing a crucial role in order to gain better conditions and performance in all phases of the construction phases.

This Special Issue entitled “Robotics, Automation, and Digitization in Construction” aims to cover topics related to the technological improvement of Construction in all its phases, such as:

Automated Data Acquisition of the Built Environment;
Robot Oriented Design in Construction, that facilitates a lean manufacturing and assembly process;
Data flow, from data acquisition to on-site works;
Robotic Off-site Manufacturing;
Robotic On-site Execution and Maintenance;
Computational Design Oriented to Robotics.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Kepa Iturralde
Prof. Dr. Thomas Bock
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

robots
automation
prefabrication
robot oriented design
data flow
data acquisition
digitization
computational design

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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21 pages, 4099 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Development of a Rotating Nozzle for Large-Scale Construction 3D Printer

by Bakhytgul Sarsenova, Akbota Uskembayeva, Ramazan Dursunov, Bakbergen Temirzakuly, Essam Shehab and Md. Hazrat Ali

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 611; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030611 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 572

Abstract

This study focuses on the design and control system of a rotating nozzle for 3D construction printers. The development of a rotating nozzle is motivated by the need to enhance control over extrusion direction and material alignment, thereby improving the mechanical performance of printed structures by the use of non-circular nozzles. The typical 3D construction printer is equipped only with a stationary circular nozzle, which prevents the use of a non-circular nozzle due to the printer’s lack of a rotational mechanical system. This, in turn, limits the opportunity to enhance mechanical properties such as tensile and compressive strengths effectively. The proposed design is developed through computer-aided design (CAD) software, and the printer’s configuration is adjusted for integration of the rotational mechanism’s control system. This design includes a full description of the rotational mechanism and integration steps for the 3D printer. Besides the main motor of the 3D printer, an additional motor is installed next to the nozzle and controlled by a new axis (parameter), which is added into the G-code. A new axis, called “U”, is responsible for the rotation of the nozzle itself. For the development of this axis design, the cosine law is applied. The calculation is based on the three consecutive points in the G-code to obtain an accurate degree of rotation for the nozzle. The effectiveness of the system was confirmed by evaluating the compressive strength depending on printhead type. Based on testing results, one trowel printhead had the highest flexural strength of 5 MPa, and a trapezoidal printhead with teeth had the highest compressive strength of 8 MPa, compared to a circular default nozzle head with 6 MPa and 2 MPa for compressive and flexural strengths, respectively. The new optimized nozzle design is implemented in existing 3D printers, which allows it not only to develop its capability in the printing process but also to make sustainable contributions in the 3D construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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37 pages, 6097 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Modular ROS–MARL Framework for Cooperative Multi-Robot Task Allocation in Construction Digital Environments

by Xinghui Xu, Samuel A. Prieto and Borja García de Soto

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030539 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 721

Abstract

The deployment of autonomous robots in construction remains constrained by the complexity and variability of real-world environments. Conventional programming and single-agent approaches lack the adaptability required for dynamic multi-robot operating conditions, underscoring the need for cooperative, learning-based systems. This paper presents an ROS-based modular framework that integrates Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) into a generic 2D simulation and execution pipeline for cooperative mobile robots in construction-oriented digital environments to enable adaptive task allocation and coordinated execution without predefined datasets or manual scheduling. The framework adopts a centralized-training, decentralized-execution (CTDE) scheme based on Multi-Agent Proximal Policy Optimization (MAPPO) and decomposes the system into interchangeable modules for environment modelling, task representation, robot interfaces, and learning, allowing different layouts, task sets, and robot models to be instantiated without redesigning the core architecture. Validation through an ROS-based 2D simulation and real-world experiments using TurtleBot3 robots demonstrated effective task scheduling, adaptive navigation, and cooperative behavior under uncertainty. In simulation, the learned MAPPO policy is benchmarked against non-learning baselines for multi-robot task allocation, and in real-robot experiments, the same policy is evaluated to quantify and discuss the performance gap between simulated and physical execution. Rather than presenting a complete construction-site deployment, this first study focuses on proposing and validating a reusable MARL–ROS framework and digital testbed for multi-robot task allocation in construction-oriented digital environments. The results show that the framework supports effective cooperative task scheduling, adaptive navigation, and logic-consistent behavior, while highlighting practical issues that arise in sim-to-real transfer. Overall, the framework provides a reusable digital foundation and benchmark for studying adaptive and cooperative multi-robot systems in construction-related planning and management contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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24 pages, 12342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toolpath-Driven Surface Articulation for Wax Formwork Technology in the Production of Thin-Shell, Robotic, CO₂-Reduced Shotcrete Elements

by Sven Jonischkies, Jeldrik Mainka, Harald Kloft, Bhavatarini Kumaravel, Asbjørn Søndergaard, Falk Martin and Norman Hack

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020257 - 7 Jan 2026

Viewed by 430

Abstract

This study introduces a digital fabrication process for producing recyclable, closed-loop wax formwork for architectural concrete applications with visually rich surface articulation while drastically reducing formwork milling time. As such, this paper presents (a) a circular large-scale production method for wax blocks via a single casting process; (b) four machine-time-optimized surface articulation strategies through CNC toolpath-driven design; (c) the investigation of different coating systems to improve architectural concrete surface quality and to ease demolding; and (d) the integration of robotic concrete shotcreting using a low-CO₂ fine-grain concrete. For the first time, wax formwork technology, characterized by its waste-free approach, has been combined with robotic shotcreting in a digital and automated workflow to fabricate fiber-reinforced, geometrically complex thin-shell concrete elements with distinct surface articulations. To evaluate the process, a series of four thin-shell concrete elements was produced, employing four distinct parametric toolpath-driven designs: linear surface articulation, crossed surface articulation, topology-adapted curve flow surface articulation, and robotic drill topology-adapted surface articulation. Results revealed a possible reduction in milling time of between 77% and 94% compared to traditional milling methods. The optimized toolpaths and design-driven milling strategies achieved a high degree of visual richness, showcasing the potential of this integrated approach for the production of high-quality architectural concrete elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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21 pages, 4146 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Drone-Based 3D Scanning and BIM for Automated Construction Progress Control

by Nerea Tárrago Garay, Jose Carlos Jimenez Fernandez, Rosa San Mateos Carreton, Marco Antonio Montes Grova, Oskari Kruth and Peru Elguezabal

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3487; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193487 - 26 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3005

Abstract

The work progress control is a key aspect for correcting deviations in construction, but currently is a task still carried out very manually by personnel moved to the execution place. This work proposes to digitize and automate the procedure through the combination and contrast of digital models of the actual state of the work and the theoretical planning. The models of the real situation are generated from the laser scanning executed by drones, the theoretical planning is reflected in the BIM4D models of the project, and their combination is automated with Feature Manipulation Engine (FME) visual programming routines. A web-based digital twin platform allows access to the end user of the service in an agile way. The methodology developed has been validated with its application on a residential building in the structural erection phase in Helsinki (Finland). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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32 pages, 2285 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging the Construction Productivity Gap—A Hierarchical Framework for the Age of Automation, Robotics, and AI

by Michael Max Bühler, Konrad Nübel, Thorsten Jelinek, Lothar Köhler and Pia Hollenbach

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2899; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162899 - 15 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5173

Abstract

The construction sector, facing a persistent productivity gap compared to other industries, is hindered by fragmented value streams, inconsistent performance metrics, and the limited scalability of process improvements. We introduce a pioneering, four-tiered hierarchical productivity framework to respond to these challenges. This innovative approach integrates operational, tactical, strategic, and normative layers. At its core, the framework applies standardised, repeatable process steps—mapped using Value Stream Mapping (VSM)—to capture key indicators such as input efficiency, output effectiveness, and First-Time Quality (FTQ). These are then aggregated through takt time compliance, schedule reliability, and workload balance to evaluate trade synchronisation and flow stability. Higher-level metrics—flow efficiency, multi-resource utilisation, and ESG-linked performance—are integrated into an Overall Productivity Index (OPI). Building on a modular production model, the proposed framework supports real-time sensing, AI-driven monitoring, and intelligent process control, as demonstrated through an empirical case study of continuous process monitoring for Kelly drilling operations. This validation illustrates how sensor-equipped machinery and machine learning algorithms can automate data capture, map observed activities to standardised process steps, and detect productivity deviations in situ. This paper contributes to a multi-scalar measurement architecture that links micro-level execution with macro-level decision-making. It provides a foundation for real-time monitoring, performance-based coordination, and data-driven innovation. The framework is applicable across modular construction, digital twins, and platform-based delivery models, offering benefits beyond specialised foundation work to all construction trades. Grounded in over a century of productivity research, the approach demonstrates how emerging technologies can deliver measurable and scalable improvements. Framing productivity as an integrative, actionable metric enables sector-wide performance gains. The framework supports construction firms, technology providers, and policymakers in advancing robust, outcome-oriented innovation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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26 pages, 2812 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Modeling, Trajectory Optimization, and Linear Control of Cable-Driven Parallel Robots for Automated Panelized Building Retrofits

by Yifang Liu and Bryan P. Maldonado

Buildings 2025, 15(9), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091517 - 1 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2099

Abstract

The construction industry faces a growing need for automation to reduce costs, improve accuracy and productivity, and address labor shortages. One area that stands to benefit significantly from automation is panelized prefabricated building envelope retrofits, which can improve a building’s energy efficiency in heating and cooling interior spaces. In this paper, we propose using cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs), which can effectively lift and handle large objects, to install these panels. However, implementing CDPRs presents significant challenges because of their nonlinear dynamics, complex trajectory planning, and precise control requirements. To tackle these challenges, this work focuses on a new application of established control and trajectory optimization theories in a CDPR simulation of a building envelope retrofit under real-world conditions. We first model the dynamics of CDPRs, highlighting the critical role of damping in system behavior. Building on this dynamic model, we formulate a trajectory optimization problem to generate feasible and efficient motion plans for the robot under operational and environmental constraints. Given the high precision required in the construction industry, accurately tracking the optimized trajectory is essential. However, challenges such as partial observability and external vibrations complicate this task. To address these issues, a Linear Quadratic Gaussian control framework is applied, enabling the robot to track the optimized trajectories with precision. Simulation results show that the proposed controller enables precise end effector positioning with errors under 4 mm, even in the presence of external wind disturbances. Through comprehensive simulations, our approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the system’s nonlinear dynamics, trajectory optimization, and control strategies under controlled yet highly realistic conditions. The results demonstrate the feasibility of CDPRs for automating panel installation and provide insights into their practical deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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27 pages, 8461 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Digital to Real: Optimised and Functionally Integrated Shotcrete 3D Printing Elements for Multi-Storey Structures

by Robin Dörrie, Stefan Gantner, Fatemeh Salehi Amiri, Lukas Lachmayer, Martin David, Tom Rothe, Niklas Freund, Ahmad Nouman, Karam Mawas, Oguz Oztoprak, Philipp Rennen, Virama Ekanayaka, André Hürkamp, Stefan Kollmannsberger, Christian Hühne, Annika Raatz, Klaus Dröder, Dirk Lowke, Norman Hack and Harald Kloft

Buildings 2025, 15(9), 1461; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091461 - 25 Apr 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2546

Abstract

The construction industry is facing a dual challenge: an increasing demand for new buildings on the one hand and the urgent need to drastically reduce emissions and waste on the other. One promising field of research to face these challenges comprises additive manufacturing (AM) technologies. Through these advanced methods, digital workflows between design and fabrication can be implemented to optimise the form and structure, unlocking new architectural freedom while ensuring sustainability and efficiency. However, to drive this transformation in construction, the new technologies must be investigated in large-scale applications. One of these fast-emerging AM techniques is Shotcrete 3D Printing (SC3DP). The present research documents the 1:1 scale manufacturing process, from digital to real, of a building section utilising SC3DP. A workflow and production steps, spanning from design over manufacturing to assembly, are introduced. The architectural design, reinforced by computational methods, was iteratively refined to adapt to manufacturing constraints. The paper also emphasises the importance of a digital twin in ensuring seamless data integration and real-time adjustments during construction. By incorporating reinforcement techniques such as short rebar insertion and robotic fibre winding, this study demonstrates the structural capabilities achievable with SC3DP. In summary, the implementation of comprehensive digital workflows utilising computational design, automated data acquisition and data flow, as well as robotic fabrication is presented to demonstrate the potential of AM methods in construction. Furthermore, this paper provides a perspective on potential future research paths and opportunities inherent in leveraging the innovative SC3DP technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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22 pages, 13566 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Architectural Units Through Robotic 3D Concrete Printing of Space-Filling Geometries

by Meryem N. Yabanigül and Derya Gulec Ozer

Buildings 2025, 15(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010060 - 27 Dec 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4691

Abstract

The integration of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) into architectural design and production offers a solution to challenges in the construction industry. This technology presents benefits such as mass customization, waste reduction, and support for complex designs. However, its adoption in construction faces various limitations, including technical, logistical, and legal barriers. This study provides insights relevant to architecture, engineering, and construction practices, guiding future developments in the field. The methodology involves fabricating closed architectural units using 3DCP, emphasizing space-filling geometries and ensuring structural strength. Across three production trials, iterative improvements were made, revealing challenges and insights into design optimization and fabrication techniques. Prioritizing controlled filling of the unit’s internal volume ensures portability and ease of assembly. Leveraging 3D robotic concrete printing technology enables precise fabrication of closed units with controlled voids, enhancing speed and accuracy in production. Experimentation with varying unit sizes and internal support mechanisms, such as sand infill and central supports, enhances performance and viability, addressing geometric capabilities and fabrication efficiency. Among these strategies, sand filling has emerged as an effective solution for internal support as it reduces unit weight, simplifies fabrication, and maintains structural integrity. This approach highlights the potential of lightweight and adaptable modular constructions in the use of 3DCP technologies for architectural applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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20 pages, 6934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the System Design and Target Recognition Method of the Rebar-Tying Robot

by Ruocheng Feng, Youquan Jia, Ting Wang and Hongxiao Gan

Buildings 2024, 14(3), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030838 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4843

Abstract

In the construction industry, the construction process of rebar tying is highly dependent on manual operation, which leads to a wide range of work areas, high labor intensity, and limited efficiency. Therefore, robot technology for automatic rebar tying has become an inevitable trend in on-site construction. This study aims to develop a planar rebar-tying robot that can achieve autonomous navigation, precise positioning, and efficient tying on a plane rebar mesh without boundaries. Our research covers the overall design of the robot control systems, the selection of key hardware, the development of software platforms, and the optimization of core algorithms. Specifically, to address the technical challenges of accurately recognizing the tying position and status, we propose an innovative two-stage identification method that combines a depth camera and an industrial camera to obtain image information about the area to be tied. The effectiveness of the planar rebar-tying robot system, including the recognition method proposed in this study, was verified by experiments on a rebar mesh demonstration platform. The following application of our robot system in the field of the Shenyang Hunnan Science and Technology City Phase IV project achieved satisfactory performance. It is shown that this research has made a unique and significant innovation in the field of automatic rebar tying. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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33 pages, 3858 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Quadruped Robots in Construction Automation: A Comprehensive Review of Applications, Localization, and Site-Level Operations

by Azizbek Kakhkharov, Jong-Wook Kim and Jae-ho Choi

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16050962 - 1 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1224

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of quadruped robots in the construction industry, focusing on their applications, technological capabilities, and integration with digital construction workflows. Quadruped robots have emerged as promising mobile platforms due to their ability to traverse uneven terrain, operate autonomously, and support multimodal sensing, enabling tasks such as site inspection, 3D reality capture, safety monitoring, logistics support, and integration with Building Information Modeling (BIM) and digital-twin systems. Despite these advantages, real-world deployment remains constrained by limitations in battery endurance, payload capacity, communication reliability, perception robustness, and system interoperability. This review synthesizes findings from 20 studies published between 2015 and 2025 and incorporates a quantitative bibliometric analysis using both SciVal and Scopus. While SciVal provides performance-based indicators and global research trends, Scopus offers complementary publication coverage, improving analytical reliability. Unlike general robotics surveys, this review adopts a construction-centric perspective by explicitly linking quadruped robot capabilities to construction engineering objectives under practical site conditions. The findings highlight current application domains, technological gaps, and adoption barriers, and outline future research directions to support the effective integration of quadruped robots into construction practice. This review provides actionable insights for researchers, engineers, and practitioners assessing the readiness and limitations of quadruped robots in construction environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)

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