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Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "J: Thermal Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2023) | Viewed by 20070

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wenjin Ding

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Guest Editor

Department of Thermal Process Technology, Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart, Germany
Interests: large-scale energy storage; thermal energy storage (TES); heat transfer fluid (HTF); concentrated solar power (CSP); molten salt battery; Carnot battery; molten salt corrosion

Dr. Ziye Ling

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Guest Editor

School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; South China University of Technology (SCUT), Guangzhou, China
Interests: preparation of functional phase change materials; performance evaluation or thermal models of latent heat storage systems and thermal management systems

Prof. Dr. Xianglei Liu

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Guest Editor

School of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 120016, China
Interests: thermal energy storage; thermal management; solar fuel
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Wenji Song

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Guest Editor

Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion (GIEC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Guangzhou, China
Interests: large-scale cold energy storage technologies; distributed energy system and control strategy; lithium-ion battery energy and thermal management

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In a net-zero future, most energy should be supplied by renewable energies such as solar and wind energy to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and related climate problems. However, these sources are strongly volatile and intermittent. Thus, energy storage is required in the future energy system to bridge the gap between energy supply and energy demand. Thermal energy storage (TES, i.e., heat and cold storage) stores thermal energy in materials via temperature change (e.g., molten salt), phase change (e.g., water/ice slurry), or reversible reactions (e.g., CaCO₃/CaO). TES technologies have the advantages of a more flexible location and lower investment compared to pumped hydrostorage, lower storage cost, larger storage capacity (GWhel scale), higher safety, and more environmental friendliness than batteries due to the simple, affordable materials used. TES technologies have been widely applied in the field of energies, e.g., power generation, grid storage for stabilization, and heat and cold energy management.

In order to accelerate international knowledge exchange and collaborations, Prof. Dr. Yulong Ding from the University of Birmingham initiated a free research exchange platform entitled “Thermal Energy Storage Development Association (TESDA)” in late 2020. TESDA now has >700 members and has also organized three free online symposiums with about 500 attendees each time. The primary goal of this Special Issue is to extend our discussions on the recent research and development of TES technologies for a net-zero future, with emphasis on advanced TES materials and devices. We welcome you to contribute research or review papers to this Special Issue. Topics of interest include but are not limited to:

Advanced TES or TES-related materials;
Advanced TES devices, e.g., heat exchanger, reactor, molten salt pump in TES systems;
TES for power generation, e.g., concentrated solar power plants, Carnot batteries;
TES for heat and cold management in, e.g., e-cars, cold chain transportation;
TES in building applications, e.g., heating or air conditioning;
TES for production of chemicals from renewable energy, e.g., solar fuels, solar hydrogen;
TES integrated with other renewable energy technologies, e.g., solar thermal conversion.

Dr. Wenjin Ding
Dr. Ziye Ling
Prof. Dr. Xianglei Liu
Prof. Dr. Wenji Song
Guest Editors

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Keywords

molten salt technology including R&D of materials and devices
TES and TES-related materials and devices
corrosion of TES materials with containment materials
TES for power generation, e.g., concentrated solar power
TES using salt hydrates
metal alloys for TES
polymer-based TES materials
thermal management systems with TES
solar fuel
thermochemical heat storage
phase change materials
CO2 splitting
PCMs and slurries for cold thermal storage
transport and heat transfer behaviors of slurries
sustainable cooling and refrigerating with CTES

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 9561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Performance of a Thermal Protection System for the Accessories of a TBCC Engine

by Wenlei Lian, Jinhua Zhang and Dengke Lin

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2713; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062713 - 14 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1581

Abstract

A theoretical model for describing the heat transfer characteristics of a turbine-based combined cycle (TBCC) engine cabin was established in Matlab/Simulink to quickly predict the thermal protection performance for engine accessories. The model’s effectiveness was verified by comparing the numerical results with the experimental data. The effects of different heat insulation layer thicknesses and fuel temperatures on the thermal protection performance are discussed; based on these effects, the heat insulation layer of 5 mm and fuel of 353 K were chosen to design the thermal protection cases. Nineteen different thermal protection cases were proposed and evaluated by using the model. Two representative accessories were chosen for the evaluation of the thermal protection performance of these cases. For accessory 1 with an internal heat source of 1000 W and internal fuel access, the thermal protection effect of adding a heat insulation layer and ventilation was the best, which decreased the accessory temperature by 43 K. For accessory 2 without an internal heat source, the thermal protection effect of adding a heat insulation layer to the casing and fuel cooling was the most ideal, which decreased the accessory temperature by 190 K. In addition, a comprehensive assessment was made to compare the performances of thermal protection cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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16 pages, 5413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of n-Octadecane@SiO₂/GO and n-Octadecane@SiO₂/Ag Nanoencapsulated Phase Change Material for Immersion Cooling of Li-Ion Battery

by Jianhao Gu, Jiajie Du, Yuxin Li, Jinpei Li, Longfei Chen, Yan Chai and Yongli Li

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031498 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2125

Abstract

Nanoencapsulated phase change materials (NePCMs) are promising thermal energy storage (TES) and heat transfer materials that show great potential in battery thermal management systems (BTMSs). In this work, nanocapsules with a paraffin core and silica shell were prepared using an optimized sol-gel method. The samples were characterized by different methods regarding chemical composition, thermal properties, etc. Then, the nanocapsules were used as the coolant by mixing with insulation oil in the immersion cooling of a simulative battery. The sample doped with Ag on the shell with a core-to-shell ratio of 1:1 showed the best performance. Compared to the sample without doping material, the thermal conductivity increased by 49%, while the supercooling degree was reduced by 35.6%. The average temperature of the simulative battery cooled by nanocapsule slurries decreased by up to 3.95 °C compared to the test performed with pure insulation oil as the coolant. These novel nanocapsules show great potential in the immersion cooling of a battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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13 pages, 4932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Thermal Model of Tetradecane/Expanded Graphite and A Spiral Wavy Plate Cold Storage Tank

by Hongguang Zhang, Tanghan Wu, Lei Tang, Ziye Ling, Zhengguo Zhang and Xiaoming Fang

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9435; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249435 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1549

Abstract

A cold storage unit can store the cold energy off-peak and release it for building cooling on-peak, which can reduce the electricity load of air conditioning systems. n-tetradecane is a suitable cold storage material for air conditioning, with a phase change temperature of is 4–8 °C and a phase change enthalpy of 200 kJ/kg. However, its low thermal conductivity limits the application of n-tetradecane for high-power cold storage/release. This paper prepares a tetradecane/expanded graphite (EG) composite phase change material (CPCM), whose thermal conductivity can be increased up to 21.0 W/m·K, nearly 100 times over the raw n-tetradecane. A novel model to predict the maximum loading fraction of paraffin in the EG matrix is presented, with an error within 1.7%. We also develop a thermal conductivity model to predict the thermal conductivity of the CPCM precisely, with an error of less than 10%. In addition, an innovative spiral wave plate cold storage tank has been designed for the tetradecane/EG composite. The power and energy density of the cold storage tank are significantly improved compared to that of raw tetradecane. The energy density reaches 40 kWh/m³, which is high among the organic PCM thermal storage tank. This paper shows the significance of thermal conductivity enhancement in designing a cold storage tank. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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20 pages, 2837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solar Thermochemical CO₂ Splitting Integrated with Supercritical CO₂ Cycle for Efficient Fuel and Power Generation

by Xiangjun Yu, Wenlei Lian, Ke Gao, Zhixing Jiang, Cheng Tian, Nan Sun, Hangbin Zheng, Xinrui Wang, Chao Song and Xianglei Liu

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7334; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197334 - 6 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1879

Abstract

Converting CO₂ into fuels via solar-driven thermochemical cycles of metal oxides is promising to address global climate change and energy crisis challenges simultaneously. However, it suffers from low energy conversion efficiency (

η_{en}

) due to high sensible heat losses when [...] Read more.

η_{en}

) due to high sensible heat losses when swinging between reduction and oxidation cycles, and a single product of fuels can hardly meet multiple kinds of energy demands. Here, we propose an alternative way to upsurge energy conversion efficiency by integrating solar thermochemical CO₂ splitting with a supercritical CO₂ thermodynamic cycle. When gas phase heat recovery (ε_gg) is equal to 0.9, the highest energy conversion efficiency of 20.4% is obtained at the optimal cycle high pressure of 260 bar. In stark contrast, the highest energy conversion efficiency is only 9.8% for conventional solar thermochemical CO₂ splitting without including a supercritical CO₂ cycle. The superior performance is attributed to efficient harvesting of waste heat and synergy of CO₂ splitting cycles with supercritical CO₂ cycles. This work provides alternative routes for promoting the development and deployment of solar thermochemical CO₂ splitting techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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17 pages, 10688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Characteristics of the Liquid Film in a Rotating Pipe

by Wenlei Lian, Yu Zhu and Zijian Sun

Energies 2022, 15(17), 6279; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176279 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1880

Abstract

A three-dimensional numerical model is established to study the flow boiling heat transfer characteristics of the liquid film in a rotating pipe, and the effectiveness of the model is verified by a comparison between the numerical results and the experimental results. The effects of rotational speed, heat flux, and Coriolis force on the characteristics of heat transfer of the rotating liquid film are investigated. The conclusions are drawn as follows: (1) The convection of the rotating liquid film is enhanced while the nucleate boiling in the rotating liquid film is inhibited by the increase in the rotational speed; (2) With the influence of these two factors, the heat transfer coefficient increases with centrifugal acceleration increasing from 20 g to 40 g, then decreases with centrifugal acceleration increasing from 40 g to 120 g; (3) The turbulent intensity of the flow with Coriolis force is obviously increased compared to that without Coriolis force when the centrifugal acceleration ranges from 20 g to 80 g, which shows no increase at higher centrifugal accelerations when the turbulence is sufficiently strong. The Coriolis force also has an impact on the heat transfer coefficient of the liquid film, which should not be ignored when studying the boiling heat transfer of a rotating liquid film. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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11 pages, 4022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Application of Ice Source Heat Pump Technology in Solar Heating System for Space Heating

by Lei Fang and Yujie Wang

Energies 2022, 15(11), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15113957 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2089

Abstract

A heat pump is an energy-effective technique to provide heating for buildings using available heat sources from the environment. Solar irradiation and ambient air are the most accessible heat sources among different heat sources; however, they are unstable for a day or several days. A large volume of the heat storage tank is usually required to provide a stable heating supply. As the most commonly used media for heat storage, water has a limitation on the heat storage temperature, i.e., above 0 °C, limiting its density of energy storage. This paper presents an experiment that evaluated the performance of a developed ice source heat pump used for assisting a solar heating system. The ice source heat pump can extract both sensible heat and the latent heat of water freezing, which doubles the density of energy storage and increase the heating output by 50%. The experiment results showed that the solar heating system tested could supply hot water at the highest temperature of 60 °C (with intense sun irradiation) and the lowest temperature of 40 °C (without sun irradiation). The min COP of the ice source heat pump was three, measured when the heat pump extracted heat from the ice water. This technology could be used for domestic heating with 50% reduced heat storage volume. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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12 pages, 6258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Characterization of Phase Change Materials for Industrial Waste Heat Recovery Applications

by Angel G. Fernández, Luis González-Fernández, Yaroslav Grosu and Jalel Labidi

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3640; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103640 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1959

Abstract

The recovery and storage of process heat in industrial applications are some of the key factors to improve the sustainability and reliability of high temperature applications. In this sense, one of the main drawbacks is focused on the selection of proper thermal energy storage (TES) materials. This paper performs a full characterization of four phase change storage materials (PCM), KOH, LiOH, NaNO₃ and KNO₃, which are proposed for storage applications between 270 and 500 °C, according to the results obtained through differential scanning calorimeter and thermogravimetric analysis. One of the main innovations includes the corrosive evaluation of these materials in a promising alumina forming alloy (OC4), close to their corresponding phase change temperature during 500 h. The physicochemical properties obtained confirm the optimal use of NaNO₃ and KNO₃ and recommend the use, with caution, of KOH, due to its higher corrosive potential. FeCr₂O₄, NiCr₂O₄ and FeAl₂O₄ were the main protective spinels formed in the alloy surface, however, the cross-section study in the alloy immersed in KOH, revealed a non-uniform behavior, presenting some cracks and spallation in the surface. On the other hand, the proposal of LiOH was disregarded since it presents a narrow operation temperature range between melting and solidification point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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14 pages, 3591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaporated Alkali Carbonate Effect on an Aluminum Diffusion Coated 253MA Vessel after 4000 h Discontinuous Operation—Lessons Learned

by Esraa Hamdy, Angelina Wagné and Christine Geers

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3241; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093241 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1505

Abstract

A vessel of a laboratory setup for hosting molten alkali carbonate immersion experiments was recently decommissioned after about 4000 h discontinuous operation at 800 °C. In this article, we want to describe the long-term damage of the vessel caused by evaporated alkali carbonate species in a carbon dioxide gas environment. The vessel is made of alloy 253MA and coated by an aluminum powder pack diffusion process. The degree of material loss and internal degradation did not correlate with the temperature profile across the vessel but rather with the vicinity to the gas and salt evaporation source. One millimeter of the vessel’s initial 5 mm wall thickness was completely consumed at the strongest attacked location plus another 800 µm of internal attack beneath the metal–oxide interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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20 pages, 5095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Transfer of Near Pseudocritical Nitrogen in Helically Coiled Tube for Cryogenic Energy Storage

by Yi Wang, Tiejun Lu, Xianglei Liu, Adriano Sciacovelli and Yongliang Li

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2752; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082752 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1725

Abstract

This paper investigates the cryogenic heat transfer phenomena of nitrogen flowing in helically coiled tubes under the combined effects of pseudocritical conditions, buoyancy, and coil curvature. The ultimate goal was to design optimum heat exchangers for liquid air energy storage. Local heat transfer coefficients were evaluated peripherally across tube cross sections. The pressure, mass flux, and heat flux effects on the heat transfer were examined. The dual effect of buoyancy and coil curvature on heat transfer coefficients was interpreted via a dimensionless number Ψ, which denotes a ratio between the two effects. Results reveal that the heat transfer coefficients increase with increasing mass flux but decreasing pressure and heat flux. The buoyancy effect dominates the heat transfer at fluid temperatures below the pseudocritical temperature (e.g., −146.3 °C at 35 bar), while the coil curvature-induced centrifugal effect dominates at higher temperatures. The heat transfer coefficients for the helical coil were approximately 13% lower compared with those in straight tube at fluid temperatures below the pseudocritical temperature, but their difference shrinks (<±6%) at higher temperatures. The reason is that the benefits of coil curvature and improved turbulent mixing on heat transfer are counteracted by the thermophysical property variation and buoyancy effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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14 pages, 4270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Ice Generation System Using Supercooled Water with a Directed Evaporating Method

by Mingbiao Chen, Dekun Fu, Wenji Song and Ziping Feng

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7021; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217021 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2221

Abstract

Ice slurry is widely used in the field of ice storage air conditioning, district cooling, seafood preservation, and milk processing. Ice generation using supercooled water is efficient, and the system structure is compact. However, a secondary refrigerant cycle is usually used in order to control the wall temperature and to prevent the “ice blocking” problem. Therefore, an ice generation system using supercooled water with a directed evaporating method is proposed and fabricated in order to improve the system performance, which is tested in the experiment. Then, two calculation methods are used to study the performance of entire ice generation system. We concluded that: (1) The system could run steady without “ice blocking” in the condition where the supercooled water temperature was higher than 271.7 K and the velocity was more than 2.1 m/s. The entire system COP could reach 1.6 when the condenser temperature was about 319 K. (2) The system COP could be improved by about 20% if the compressor output power was based on the theoretical refrigerant cycle. The system COP could reach about 2.5 if the proportion of extra power was 3% and the condenser temperature was 308 K. (3) The system COP with a directed evaporating method was about 14% higher than that with an indirected evaporating method. (4) An orthogonal test was built to quantify the influence of different critical parameters. The influence of factors on the system COP were as follows: condenser temperature > water flow > adiabatic compressibility > refrigerant. This work provided a good look at the performance of an ice generation system using supercooled water with a directed evaporating method. It can play an important role in guiding the design of a system of ice generation using supercooled water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat and Cold Storage for a Net-Zero Future)

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