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Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality
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Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2022) | Viewed by 33237

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Pei Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Lab of Power Systems, Department of Energy and Power Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Interests: energy systems engineering; in particular energy systems planning; distributed energy systems; polygeneration energy systems; and digital twin of power plants
Prof. Dr. Ming Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
Interests: optimized thermal control, intelligent power station; thermal system optimization; energy saving and flexibility; a new supercritical carbon dioxide power cycle; future energy systems; gas-solid two-phase flow
Dr. Xiao Wu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Engineering Research Center of Power Generation Control and Safety, School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
Interests: optimization and control of low-carbon energy system
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Energy systems have been playing an essential role in the history of human civilization. As our civilization evolves, energy systems are expected to adapt to the environment and desire of people for more sustainable development whilst meeting the ever-increasing energy demand of society. To address global warming and its threats to sustainable development in multiple ends, major economies around the world have announced low-carbon, carbon-neutral, or negative-carbon development targets. To meet these goals, the energy systems as we know them today need to undergo substantial structural changes in terms of the way primary energy is extracted from nature, converted to secondary energy, transmitted from conversion sites to end use, and shifted between time slots to coordinate supply and demand. The share of renewable and fossil energy in the overall energy portfolio could experience unprecedented structural change of a kind not witnessed since industrialization. To cope with this harsh transition, energy systems should be planned, designed, retrofitted, and operated in a revolutionary manner.

This Special Issue “Integrated Energy Systems toward Carbon Neutrality” aims to present the most recent advances in energy systems analysis towards low/zero/negative carbon emission targets via integration amongst different primary energy supplies, between multiple energy supplies and demands, across geographically separated regions, and over different time scales from seconds to seasons. Relevant topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Theoretical development of integrated energy systems and/or applications
  • Integrated energy systems modeling, simulation, optimization, and case studies
  • Dynamic behavior studies of integrated energy systems and dynamic modeling, simulation, and control
  • Novel energy extraction, conversion, transmission, storage, onsite generation/dispensing technologies that enable integrated energy systems

Dr. Pei Liu
Prof. Dr. Ming Liu
Dr. Xiao Wu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • carbon neutral
  • sustainable development
  • energy systems analysis
  • renewable energy
  • modeling
  • simulation
  • optimization
  • dynamics

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 158 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue on “Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality”
by Pei Liu, Ming Liu and Xiao Wu
Processes 2023, 11(2), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020439 - 1 Feb 2023
Viewed by 1117
Abstract
Energy systems have played an essential role in the history of human civilization [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

16 pages, 1415 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Heat Recovery Networks for Energy Savings in Industrial Processes
by Jui-Yuan Lee and Po-Yu Chen
Processes 2023, 11(2), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020321 - 18 Jan 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2572
Abstract
Among the pillars of decarbonization of the global energy system, energy efficiency plays a key role in reducing energy consumption across end-use (industry, transport and buildings) sectors. In industrial processes, energy efficiency can be improved by exploiting heat recovery via heat exchange between [...] Read more.
Among the pillars of decarbonization of the global energy system, energy efficiency plays a key role in reducing energy consumption across end-use (industry, transport and buildings) sectors. In industrial processes, energy efficiency can be improved by exploiting heat recovery via heat exchange between process streams. This paper develops a stage-wise superstructure-based mathematical programming model for the optimization of heat exchanger networks. The model incorporates rigorous formulation to handle process streams with phase change (condensation or evaporation), and is applied to a case study of an ethylene glycol production plant in Taiwan for minimizing utility consumption. The results show a compromise between steam savings and process feasibility, as well as how the model is modified to reflect practical considerations. In the preliminary analysis, with a substantial potential steam saving of 15,476 kW (28%), the solution involves forbidden matches that pose a hazard to the process and cannot be implemented. In the further analysis without process streams that cause forbidden matches, although the space limitation in the plant renders the best solution infeasible, the compromise solution can achieve a considerable steam saving of up to 8448 kW (91%) and is being evaluated by the plant managers and operators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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13 pages, 3806 KiB  
Article
Data-Driven Conjugate Heat Transfer Analysis of a Gas Turbine Vane
by Hao Cui, Lang Wang, Xueying Li and Jing Ren
Processes 2022, 10(11), 2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112335 - 9 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1972
Abstract
Cooling structures of gas turbine blades have become more complex to achieve a better cooling effect. Therefore, heat transfer analysis tools with higher accuracy and efficiency are required to verify the effectiveness of cooling designs and continuously improve the design. In this work, [...] Read more.
Cooling structures of gas turbine blades have become more complex to achieve a better cooling effect. Therefore, heat transfer analysis tools with higher accuracy and efficiency are required to verify the effectiveness of cooling designs and continuously improve the design. In this work, a data-driven method is combined with a decoupled conjugate heat transfer analysis. The analysis object is a typical air-cooled gas turbine first-stage vane with film cooling, impingement cooling, and pin-fin cooling. In addition, a conventional 3-D conjugate heat transfer simulation of the vane was executed for contrast. Results show that this method shortens the time of the heat transfer analysis process significantly and ensures accuracy. It proves that the data-driven method is effective for the evaluation of a modern gas turbine cooling design and is an improvement compared to the traditional three-dimensional heat transfer analysis method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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19 pages, 2403 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis of Primary and Recycled Aluminum in China
by Tianduo Peng, Lei Ren, Ershun Du, Xunmin Ou and Xiaoyu Yan
Processes 2022, 10(11), 2299; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112299 - 5 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5338
Abstract
Aluminum production is a major energy consumer and important source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally. Estimation of the energy consumption and GHG emissions caused by aluminum production in China has attracted widespread attention because China produces more than half of the global [...] Read more.
Aluminum production is a major energy consumer and important source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally. Estimation of the energy consumption and GHG emissions caused by aluminum production in China has attracted widespread attention because China produces more than half of the global aluminum. This paper conducted life cycle (LC) energy consumption and GHG emissions analysis of primary and recycled aluminum in China for the year 2020, considering the provincial differences on both the scale of self-generated electricity consumed in primary aluminum production and the generation source of grid electricity. Potentials for energy saving and GHG emissions reductions were also investigated. The results indicate that there are 157,207 MJ of primary fossil energy (PE) consumption and 15,947 kg CO2-eq of GHG emissions per ton of primary aluminum ingot production in China, with the LC GHG emissions as high as 1.5–3.5 times that of developed economies. The LC PE consumption and GHG emissions of recycled aluminum are very low, only 7.5% and 5.3% that of primary aluminum, respectively. Provincial-level results indicate that the LC PE and GHG emissions intensities of primary aluminum in the main production areas are generally higher while those of recycled aluminum are lower in the main production areas. LC PE consumption and GHG emissions can be significantly reduced by decreasing electricity consumption, self-generated electricity management, low-carbon grid electricity development, and industrial relocation. Based on this study, policy suggestions for China’s aluminum industry are proposed. Recycled aluminum industry development, restriction of self-generated electricity, low-carbon electricity utilization, and industrial relocation should be promoted as they are highly helpful for reducing the LC PE consumption and GHG emissions of the aluminum industry. In addition, it is recommended that the central government considers the differences among provinces when designing and implementing policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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27 pages, 3619 KiB  
Article
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell-Based Polygeneration Systems in Residential Applications: A Review of Technology, Energy Planning and Guidelines for Optimizing the Design
by Farah Ramadhani, M. A. Hussain, Hazlie Mokhlis and Oon Erixno
Processes 2022, 10(10), 2126; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102126 - 19 Oct 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2666
Abstract
Solid oxide fuel cells are an emerging energy conversion technology suitable for high-temperature power generation with proper auxiliary heat. Combining SOFCs and polygeneration has produced practical applications for modern energy system designs. Even though many researchers have reviewed these systems’ technologies, opportunities and [...] Read more.
Solid oxide fuel cells are an emerging energy conversion technology suitable for high-temperature power generation with proper auxiliary heat. Combining SOFCs and polygeneration has produced practical applications for modern energy system designs. Even though many researchers have reviewed these systems’ technologies, opportunities and challenges, reviews regarding the optimal strategy for designing and operating the systems are limited. Polygeneration is more complicated than any other energy generation type due to its ability to generate many types of energy from various prime movers. Moreover, integration with other applications, such as vehicle charging and fueling stations, increases the complication in making the system optimally serve the loads. This study elaborates on the energy planning and guidelines for designing a polygeneration system, especially for residential applications. The review of polygeneration technologies also aligns with the current research trend of developing green technology for modern and smart homes in residential areas. The proposed guideline is expected to solve the complication in other applications and technologies and design the polygeneration system optimally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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21 pages, 3217 KiB  
Article
A Long-Term Decarbonisation Modelling and Optimisation Approach for Transport Sector Planning Considering Modal Shift and Infrastructure Construction: A Case Study of China
by Chenxi Li, Pei Liu and Zheng Li
Processes 2022, 10(7), 1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10071371 - 13 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2408
Abstract
Reducing direct carbon emissions in the transport sector is crucial for carbon neutrality. It is a considerable challenge to achieve substantial CO2 emissions reductions while satisfying rapidly growing traffic demands. Previous studies cannot be applied directly in long-term planning for the transport [...] Read more.
Reducing direct carbon emissions in the transport sector is crucial for carbon neutrality. It is a considerable challenge to achieve substantial CO2 emissions reductions while satisfying rapidly growing traffic demands. Previous studies cannot be applied directly in long-term planning for the transport sector with rapid demand growth. To bridge this gap, a multi-regional model is proposed in this paper to quantify the optimal decarbonisation path for the transport sector in order to save costs. Considering modal shift and infrastructure construction, this model regards the transport sector as a whole and China is taken as a case study. The results show that electricity and hydrogen will be the major fuels of the transport sector in the future, accounting for 45 percent and 25 percent of fuel demands in 2060. This means that the electricity used by the transport sector accounts for 10 percent of the electricity consumed by the whole of society. The results reflect that freight transport has reached a CO2 emissions peak, while passenger transport will reach its own CO2 emissions peak around 2041. Giving priority to decarbonisation in freight transport can save 5 percent of the transition cost. The results also suggest that modal shift can save at most 7 percent of the transition cost. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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21 pages, 2475 KiB  
Article
Improved Thermoeconomic Energy Efficiency Analysis for Integrated Energy Systems
by Sha Liu and Jiong Shen
Processes 2022, 10(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010137 - 10 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1667
Abstract
The structure of an integrated energy system is complex. Thermoeconomics can play a significant role in the analysis of IES because it makes up for the deficiency of traditional thermodynamic analysis and provides new information on the cost and energy conversion efficiency. When [...] Read more.
The structure of an integrated energy system is complex. Thermoeconomics can play a significant role in the analysis of IES because it makes up for the deficiency of traditional thermodynamic analysis and provides new information on the cost and energy conversion efficiency. When using thermoeconomics to analyze the energy efficiency of an IES, one key issue that needs to be solved is how to transfer irreversible loss across thermal cycles, so that the mechanism of system performance degradation can be fully revealed. To this end, an irreversible cost and exergy cost integrated analysis method based on improved thermoeconomics is proposed, in which the cumulative and transmission impact of irreversible loss across thermal cycles is evaluated using linear transformation of <KP> matrix. A case study on a 389MW combined cooling, heating, and power IES demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The proposed approach can reveal the key links impairing the overall energy efficiency and transfer of irreversible loss across thermal cycles. The approach can be extended to various types of IES to provide directions for the assessment and optimization of the system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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17 pages, 5015 KiB  
Article
Research on Dynamic Modeling of the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Power Cycle
by Ping Song, Zhenxing Zhao, Lie Chen, Chunhui Dai, Chonghai Huang, Mengran Liao, Xingsheng Lao, Yuansheng Lin and Wei Wang
Processes 2021, 9(11), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111946 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2328
Abstract
The supercritical carbon dioxide (SCO2) Brayton cycle, as a substitute for the steam cycle, can be widely used in a variety of power generation scenarios. However, most of the existing SCO2 cycle studies are restricted to basic thermodynamics research, parameter [...] Read more.
The supercritical carbon dioxide (SCO2) Brayton cycle, as a substitute for the steam cycle, can be widely used in a variety of power generation scenarios. However, most of the existing SCO2 cycle studies are restricted to basic thermodynamics research, parameter optimizations, system design in different application fields, and even economic analysis. Considering the load variability and control flexibility of the power generation system, the dynamic performance research of the SCO2 cycle is also crucial, but the work done is still limited. Based on the previous studies, Simulink software is used in this paper to develop a dynamic model of the 20 MW-SCO2 recompression cycle, which specifically includes component models that can independently realize physical functions and an overall closed-loop cycle model. A series of comparative calculation are carried out to verify the models and the results are very positive. The SCO2 recompression power system is built with the developed models and the dynamic model runs stably with a maximum error of 0.56%. Finally, the simulation of the dynamic switching conditions of the 20 MW-SCO2 recompression cycle are performed and the analysis results supply instructive suggestions for the system operation and control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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14 pages, 4976 KiB  
Article
Research on Response Characteristics and Control Strategy of the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Power Cycle
by Chunhui Dai, Ping Song, Can Ma, Kelong Zhang, Wei Zheng, Lie Chen, Xiaojie Guo, Yuansheng Lin and Zhiqiang Qiu
Processes 2021, 9(11), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111943 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2095
Abstract
With the development of GEN-IV nuclear reactor technology, the supercritical carbon dioxide (SCO2) Brayton cycle has attracted wide attention for its simple structure and high efficiency. Correspondingly, a series of research has been carried out to study the characteristics of the [...] Read more.
With the development of GEN-IV nuclear reactor technology, the supercritical carbon dioxide (SCO2) Brayton cycle has attracted wide attention for its simple structure and high efficiency. Correspondingly, a series of research has been carried out to study the characteristics of the cycle. The control flexibility of the power generation system has rarely been studied. This paper carried out a dynamic performance of the 20 MW-SCO2 recompression cycle based on the Simulink software. In the simulation, the response characteristics of the system main parameters under the disturbances of cooling water temperature, split ratio, main compressor inlet temperature and pressure were analyzed. The results show that the turbine inlet temperature is most affected by the disturbances, with a re-stabilization time of 2500–3000 s. According to the response characteristics of the system after being disturbed, this study proposed a stable operation control scheme. The scheme is coordinated with the main compressor inlet temperature and pressure control, recompressor outlet pressure control, turbine inlet temperature control and turbine load control. Finally, the control strategy is verified with the disturbance of reduced split ratio, and the results show that the control effect is good. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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17 pages, 5511 KiB  
Article
Two-Step Intelligent Control for a Green Flexible EV Energy Supply Station Oriented to Dual Carbon Targets
by Shanshan Shi, Chen Fang, Haojing Wang, Jianfang Li, Yuekai Li, Daogang Peng and Huirong Zhao
Processes 2021, 9(11), 1918; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111918 - 27 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1751
Abstract
As China proposes to achieve carbon peak by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060, as well as the huge pressure on the power grid caused by the load demand of the energy supply stations of electric vehicles (EVs), there is an urgent need [...] Read more.
As China proposes to achieve carbon peak by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060, as well as the huge pressure on the power grid caused by the load demand of the energy supply stations of electric vehicles (EVs), there is an urgent need to carry out comprehensive energy management and coordinated control for EVs’ energy supply stations. Therefore, this paper proposed a two-step intelligent control method known as ISOM-SAIA to solve the problem of the 24 h control and regulation of green/flexible EV energy supply stations, including four subsystems such as a photovoltaic subsystem, an energy storage subsystem, an EV charging subsystem and an EV battery changing subsystem. The proposed control method has two main innovations and contributions. One is that it reduces the computational burden by dividing the multi-dimensional mixed-integer programming problem of simultaneously optimizing the 24 h operation modes and outputs of four subsystems into two sequential tasks: the classification of data-driven operation modes and the rolling optimization of operational outputs. The other is that proper carbon transaction costs and carbon emission constraints are considered to help save costs and reduce carbon emissions. The simulation analysis conducted in this paper indicates that the proposed two-step intelligent control method can help green/flexible EV energy supply stations to optimally allocate energy flows between four subsystems, effectively respond to peak shaving and valley filling of power grid, save energy costs and reduce carbon emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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26 pages, 2756 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Cascade Cooling System Based on Lithium Bromide Refrigeration in the Polysilicon Industry
by Shutong Yang, Youlei Wang and Yufei Wang
Processes 2021, 9(9), 1681; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091681 - 18 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2745
Abstract
Cascade cooling systems containing different cooling methods (e.g., air cooling, water cooling, refrigerating) are used to satisfy the cooling process of hot streams with large temperature spans. An effective cooling system can significantly save energy and costs. In a cascade cooling system, the [...] Read more.
Cascade cooling systems containing different cooling methods (e.g., air cooling, water cooling, refrigerating) are used to satisfy the cooling process of hot streams with large temperature spans. An effective cooling system can significantly save energy and costs. In a cascade cooling system, the heat load distribution between different cooling methods has great impacts on the capital cost and operation cost of the system, but the relative optimization method is not well established. In this work, a cascade cooling system containing waste heat recovery, air cooling, water cooling, absorption refrigeration, and compression refrigeration is proposed. The objective is to find the optimal heat load distribution between different cooling methods with the minimum total annual cost. Aspen Plus and MATLAB were combined to solve the established mathematical optimization model, and the genetic algorithm (GA) in MATLAB was adopted to solve the model. A case study in a polysilicon enterprise was used to illustrate the feasibility and economy of the cascade cooling system. Compared to the base case, which only includes air cooling, water cooling, and compression refrigeration, the cascade cooling system can reduce the total annual cost by USD 931,025·y−1 and save 7,800,820 kWh of electricity per year. It also can recover 3139 kW of low-grade waste heat, and generate and replace a cooling capacity of 2404 kW. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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22 pages, 10182 KiB  
Article
Research on Regional Short-Term Power Load Forecasting Model and Case Analysis
by Kang Qian, Xinyi Wang and Yue Yuan
Processes 2021, 9(9), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091617 - 8 Sep 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2028
Abstract
Integrated energy services will have multiple values and far-reaching significance in promoting energy transformation and serving “carbon peak and carbon neutralization”. In order to balance the supply and demand of power system in integrated energy, it is necessary to establish a scientific model [...] Read more.
Integrated energy services will have multiple values and far-reaching significance in promoting energy transformation and serving “carbon peak and carbon neutralization”. In order to balance the supply and demand of power system in integrated energy, it is necessary to establish a scientific model for power load forecasting. Different algorithms for short-term electric load forecasting considering meteorological factors are presented in this paper. The correlation between electric load and meteorological factors is first analyzed. After the principal component analysis (PCA) of meteorological factors and autocorrelation analysis of the electric load, the daily load forecasting model is established by optimal support vector machine (OPT-SVM), Elman neural network (ENN), as well as their combinations through linear weighted average, geometric weighted average, and harmonic weighted average method, respectively. Based on the actual data of an industrial park of Nantong in China, the prediction performance in the four seasons with the different models is evaluated. The main contribution of this paper is to compare the effectiveness of different models for short-term electric load forecasting and to give a guideline to build the proper methods for load forecasting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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19 pages, 2583 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Pipeline Network Layout for Multiple Heat Sources Distributed Energy Systems Considering Reliability Evaluation
by Ziyuan Cui, Hai Lin, Yan Wu, Yufei Wang and Xiao Feng
Processes 2021, 9(8), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081308 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3109
Abstract
Due to the target of carbon neutrality, energy saving has become more important than ever. At the same time, the widespread use of distributed energy systems and the regional utilization of industrial waste heat leads to the existence of multiple heat sources in [...] Read more.
Due to the target of carbon neutrality, energy saving has become more important than ever. At the same time, the widespread use of distributed energy systems and the regional utilization of industrial waste heat leads to the existence of multiple heat sources in an area. Therefore, how to design an economical and reliable pipeline network to meet energy-saving demand under multiple heat source conditions becomes a problem. In this work, an optimization method is established to determine the optimal pipeline network topology with minimum total annual cost. In this optimization method, Star tree algorithm, Kruskal algorithm and GeoSteiner algorithm are combined with a linear programming model to establish a distributed energy pipeline network for multiple heat sources. The model incorporates Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree and Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree in the consideration of the topology optimization of Distributed Energy System pipeline networks. Four pipeline network topologies, STAR, Minimum Spanning Tree, Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree and Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree, are evaluated in this paper from economic and reliability perspectives. A case extracted from a real industrial park where steam is the medium is used to prove the validity of the model. The optimization results show that a Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree pipeline network has a lower total annual cost than three other types of pipeline network and ranks second in reliability. Considering the comprehensive economy and reliability, ESMT is the optimal pipeline network type of distributed energy system with steam as the medium. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Energy Systems towards Carbon Neutrality)
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