Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.0 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.3 (2023)
Latest Articles
Assessing the Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality in the Acacias River Basin, Colombia
Water 2024, 16(13), 1903; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131903 (registering DOI) - 3 Jul 2024
Abstract
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Surface water resources have played a fundamental role in the development of human societies. Considering that different agricultural and industrial activities are carried out in the Acacias River basin, the main objective of this research was to analyze the influence of land use
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Surface water resources have played a fundamental role in the development of human societies. Considering that different agricultural and industrial activities are carried out in the Acacias River basin, the main objective of this research was to analyze the influence of land use on the water quality in this area by identifying the main sources that influence river water quality. The methodology consisted of establishing 12 sampling stations with different land uses at three times. The National Sanitation Foundation-Water Quality Index (NSF-WQI) was applied to the obtained water quality evaluation data. The main results showed that the stations associated with urban centers presented a higher concentration in the following variables: fecal coliforms, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and phosphates. The principal components analysis revealed a close relation between the parameters of fecal coliforms, phosphates and BOD, and the pollution processes by organic matter, which are probably related to domestic and industrial wastewater discharges, and to detergents in urbanized areas. The parameters with the greatest range of values were total dissolved solids and turbidity. These results coincide with what was observed in the correlation analysis. Finally, nitrates showed higher concentrations at stations 6 and 7, associated with agricultural and industrial influence areas (i.e., oil palm crops in the basin). This study about the Acacias River is, thus, extremely important for the region, and concludes that the river’s self-purifying capacity allows improved water quality in the areas where the predominant land use is not associated with human settlements.
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Open AccessArticle
The Influence of Snow Cover Variability on the Runoff in Syr Darya Headwater Catchments between 2000 and 2022 Based on the Analysis of Remote Sensing Time Series
by
Clara Vydra, Andreas J. Dietz, Sebastian Roessler and Christopher Conrad
Water 2024, 16(13), 1902; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131902 (registering DOI) - 3 Jul 2024
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Climate change is affecting the snow cover conditions on a global scale, leading to changes in the extent and duration of snow cover as well as variations in the start and end of snow cover seasons. These changes can have a paramount impact
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Climate change is affecting the snow cover conditions on a global scale, leading to changes in the extent and duration of snow cover as well as variations in the start and end of snow cover seasons. These changes can have a paramount impact on runoff and water availability, especially in catchments that are characterized by nival runoff regimes, e.g., the Syr Darya in Central Asia. This time series analyses of daily MODIS snow cover products and in situ data from hydrological stations for the time series from 2000 through 2022 reveal the influences of changing snow cover on the runoff regime. All catchments showed a decrease in spring snow cover duration of −0.53 to −0.73 days per year over the 22-year period. Catchments located farther west are generally characterized by longer snow cover duration and experience a stronger decreasing trend. Runoff timing was found to be influenced by late winter and spring snow cover duration, pointing towards earlier snowmelt in most of the regions, which affects the runoff in some tributaries of the river. The results of this study indicate that the decreasing snow cover duration trends lead to an earlier runoff, which demands more coordinated water resource management in the Syr Darya catchment. Further research is recommended to understand the implications of snow cover dynamics on water resources in Central Asia, crucial for agriculture and hydropower production.
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Open AccessArticle
Performance Assessment of Rural Decentralized Domestic Wastewater Treatment Facilities in Foshan, China
by
Minru Liu, Zhenrong Lin, Jiajie Li, Mingtian Zhu, Zhihua Tang and Kai Li
Water 2024, 16(13), 1901; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131901 (registering DOI) - 3 Jul 2024
Abstract
Rural decentralized domestic wastewater treatment (DDWT) facilities, as an alternative to centralized sewage treatment plants, have been rapidly developed in rural areas worldwide. However, the lack of performance evaluations and operational status assessments of these facilities poses a significant obstacle to advancements in
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Rural decentralized domestic wastewater treatment (DDWT) facilities, as an alternative to centralized sewage treatment plants, have been rapidly developed in rural areas worldwide. However, the lack of performance evaluations and operational status assessments of these facilities poses a significant obstacle to advancements in rural domestic wastewater treatment strategies. In the present study, 30 rural DDWT facilities with AO (anoxic/oxic) and AAO (anaerobic/anoxic/oxic) processes were investigated. The results revealed that only two facilities reached the first A-grade discharge standards of China, and twelve facilities met the first B-grade discharge standards for all ten wastewater quality indicators. Low standard-achieving ratios for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) (63.3%), total nitrogen (TN) (60.0%), ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) (63.3%), total phosphorus (TP) (30.0%), suspended solids (SS) (46.7%), and fecal coliforms (FC) (26.7%) were calculated. Thus, it is essential to improve the treatment efficiency for BOD5, TN, NH3-N, TP, SS, and FC for rural wastewater treatment facilities. In addition, the AAO process had a median weighted average removal efficiency of 82.02%, which was better than that of the AO process (72.48%). Minor equipment failure rates, i.e., less than 20%, did not affect the operation of the rural DDWT facilities, since most equipment in the DDWT facilities was backed up. Notably, problems in several areas, e.g., process design, equipment selection, construction, and especially operations, influencing treatment performance should be investigated and proactively addressed. These findings provide specific suggestions for improvements that could benefit the long-term operation and management of rural DDWT facilities.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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Open AccessArticle
The Effects of Ocean Governance on Marine Economic Development from an Environmental Optimization Perspective
by
Kuan Hong and Xin Guan
Water 2024, 16(13), 1900; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131900 (registering DOI) - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
The oceans and seas are vital resources for human life and fundamental to global economic growth. With the expansion of globalization and increasing demand for resource exploitation, the ocean economy has emerged as a critical support for economic growth and a significant concern
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The oceans and seas are vital resources for human life and fundamental to global economic growth. With the expansion of globalization and increasing demand for resource exploitation, the ocean economy has emerged as a critical support for economic growth and a significant concern for many. However, the exploitation of marine resources often leads to ecological damage and environmental pollution, seriously threatening the long-term viability of the marine economy. Measures must be implemented to balance ecological protection and economic development for sustainable growth in the marine sector. This investigation synthesizes over a decade’s worth of data from various coastal cities, incorporating insights from national databases, international reports, and scholarly articles, resulting in an analysis of more than 500 data points. Through the application of a rigorous quantitative approach and a dual fixed-effect model, the study delves into the dynamics between ocean governance and economic development. By analyzing a broad and representative dataset, the research provides an exhaustive overview of global ocean governance frameworks and the current state of the marine economy. The statistical analyses unveil the complexity and diversity of factors influencing the development and governance of marine economies. This paper explores the interplay between marine economic development and ocean governance, evaluating the impact of governance on marine economic progression within the context of environmental optimization. Furthermore, it proposes policy interventions aimed at fostering the sustainable growth of marine economies, ensuring the conservation of marine ecosystems, and pursuing overarching long-term global growth ambitions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water–Energy–Carbon–Economy–Health Relationships)
Open AccessReview
A Systematic Review on Drivers of Water-Use Behaviour among Agricultural Water Users
by
Markus A. Monteiro, Yonas T. Bahta and Henry Jordaan
Water 2024, 16(13), 1899; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131899 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is closely linked to the sustainable management of water resources and sanitation worldwide. SDG 6.4, in particular, aims to significantly improve water-use efficiency across all sectors by 2030. It is important to acknowledge the significant role that
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Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is closely linked to the sustainable management of water resources and sanitation worldwide. SDG 6.4, in particular, aims to significantly improve water-use efficiency across all sectors by 2030. It is important to acknowledge the significant role that behavioural aspects of water users in an agricultural context play in contributing to water-use efficiency. This systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date synthesis of the current knowledge of water-use behaviours in agriculture to stay on track in achieving SDG 6. This systematic literature review investigates the factors influencing water-use behaviour among agricultural water users globally. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method, we retrieved a total of 867 records, of which 47 matched the eligibility criteria. The 47 relevant studies were primarily conducted in the United States and China with key themes including sustainable agricultural practices, technology adoption for productivity, climate change adaptation, and modelling and uncertainty in water conservation. Additionally, the review identified six distinct water-use behaviours investigated from 2020 to 2024, which were each driven by its unique set of factors. Overall, the findings from the systematic review indicate that there has been a geographical gap in research efforts over the past five years, and it is important for water-use behaviour-related research to be extended to other countries that are water-stressed. Furthermore, the researchers recommend that future studies should develop comprehensive behavioural models and adopt holistic approaches to better understand and promote sustainable water-use behaviours in agriculture. These efforts are vital for achieving sustainable water management and broader SDGs.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Scarcity)
Open AccessArticle
Release Characteristics of Small-Sized Microplastics in Bottled Drinks Using Flow Cytometry Sorting and Nile Red Staining
by
Peixuan Zhou, Kejia Zhang, Tuqiao Zhang, Cheng Cen, Yingying Zheng and Youwen Shuai
Water 2024, 16(13), 1898; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131898 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
Small-sized microplastics (MPs) pose concerns about potential risks to both the environment and human health. However, research on MP pollution is hampered by limitations in the detection techniques. Also, few studies have provided insight into the release of small-sized MPs from disposable polyethylene
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Small-sized microplastics (MPs) pose concerns about potential risks to both the environment and human health. However, research on MP pollution is hampered by limitations in the detection techniques. Also, few studies have provided insight into the release of small-sized MPs from disposable polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-bottled drinks for outdoor usage. Thus, PET bottles’ potential to release small MPs sized 1–100 μm outdoors was studied in relation to physical and chemical parameters (temperature, sunlight irradiation, and drink characteristics) using flow cytometry and Nile Red dye. The results showed that temperatures below 80 °C had little effect on the release of MPs from PET bottles. Sunlight irradiation and alkalinity were prone to promote the generation of MPs, mostly 1–5 μm in size. Moreover, the combined impact test implied that two pairings—acidity with temperature and alkalinity with sunlight—positively affected MP release, with maximum releases of 21,622 ± 2477 particles/L and 31,081 ± 7173 particles/L, respectively. Based on the rapid quantification of small-sized MPs using flow cytometry after Nile Red selection, the results hereby presented will assist researchers in reducing MP release and aid them in the evaluation of MPs’ contamination of aquatic environments.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water and Stormwater Networks: Modelling and Pollutant Degradation)
Open AccessArticle
Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Center Pivot Irrigation Systems in the Brazilian Tropical Savanna (1985–2020)
by
Edson Eyji Sano, Ivo Augusto Lopes Magalhães, Lineu Neiva Rodrigues and Édson Luis Bolfe
Water 2024, 16(13), 1897; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131897 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
The 204-million-hectare Brazilian tropical savanna (Cerrado biome), located in the central part of Brazil, constitutes the main region of food and natural fiber production in the country. An important part of this production is based on center pivot irrigation. Existing studies evaluating the
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The 204-million-hectare Brazilian tropical savanna (Cerrado biome), located in the central part of Brazil, constitutes the main region of food and natural fiber production in the country. An important part of this production is based on center pivot irrigation. Existing studies evaluating the spatio-temporal dynamics of center pivots in Brazil do not consider their retraction. This study aimed to evaluate the expansion and retraction of center pivots in the Cerrado biome in the period 1985–2020. We relied on the data produced by the MapBiomas Irriga project. In this period, the area occupied by center pivots increased from 47 thousand hectares in 1985 to 1.2 million hectares in 2020, mostly concentrated in the states of Minas Gerais, Goiás, São Paulo, and Bahia, confirming previous reports available in the literature. Among the 13 irrigation poles recognized by the National Water Agency (ANA), the Oeste Baiano (Bahia State) and the São Marcos (Goiás State) presented the largest areas of center pivots (173,048 ha and 101,725 ha, respectively). We also found that 76% of the center pivots are concentrated in the regions with low water availability (0.01–0.45 mm day−1). Within this 16-year period (2005–2020), more than 10% of center pivots found in 2005 were either abandoned or converted into rain-fed crop production. The results of this study can provide an important foundation for public policies directed toward the sustainable use of water resources by different consumers.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Water and Energy Monitoring and Their Nexus)
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Open AccessReview
Sustainable Management of Water Resources for Drinking Water Supply by Exploring Nanotechnology
by
Tri Partono Adhi, Giovanni Arneldi Sumampouw, Daniel Pramudita, Arti Munandari, Irwan Kurnia, Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar and Antonius Indarto
Water 2024, 16(13), 1896; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131896 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
Freshwater is a limited resource that is needed by all living things. However, the available amount of it cannot counterbalance the explosion of the human population in recent years. This condition is worsened because of the contamination of many bodies of water by
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Freshwater is a limited resource that is needed by all living things. However, the available amount of it cannot counterbalance the explosion of the human population in recent years. This condition is worsened because of the contamination of many bodies of water by industrialization and urbanization. Nanomaterials offer an alternative sustainable solution due to their unique size-dependent properties, i.e., high specific surface area and discontinuous properties. These advantages can be utilized to reuse wastewater to become a sustainable water source for drinking water. Many recent studies have proven that nanotechnologies in the forms of nano-adsorbents, nanomembranes, and nano-catalysts have high performances in water contaminants removal. This review provides a comprehensive discussion around these nanotechnologies from the mechanism, applications, efficacy, advantages, disadvantages, and challenges in applications for producing drinking water including by wastewater reusing. Each nanotechnology reviewed here has been proven to perform effectively for water contaminants removal in laboratory scale. An initial study is also performed in this review to analyze the sustainability of nanotechnology for producing drinking water. In spite of the great efficacy, nanotechnologies utilization in commercial scales is still limited which requires further studies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Homogeneity Detection and Adjustment of Sea Surface Salinity along the Coast of the Northern South China Sea
by
Jingyi Huang, Dawei You and Yan Li
Water 2024, 16(13), 1895; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131895 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
In this study, we applied the penalized maximum F test (PMF) method in the Relative Homogenization test V4 (RHtestV4) package without reference series to improve the reliability of monthly mean long-term sea surface salinity (SSS) data. The data were obtained from six coastal
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In this study, we applied the penalized maximum F test (PMF) method in the Relative Homogenization test V4 (RHtestV4) package without reference series to improve the reliability of monthly mean long-term sea surface salinity (SSS) data. The data were obtained from six coastal hydrological stations along the coast of the northern SCS, spanning from January 1960 to December 2018. Based on the detailed metadata, taking the influence of regional climate change factors into full account, the inhomogeneity of these SSS data was detected and adjusted. The findings indicate that all six coastal hydrological stations exhibited breakpoints, and among them, 22 breakpoints were identified in total, which were the causes of inhomogeneity in the monthly SSS time series. The primary factors contributing to these breakpoints were human-related and, specifically, related to changes in instruments. The average adjustment of monthly quantile matching (QM) of the salinity series ranged from around −4.25 to 3.33‰. The quality of the adjusted annual mean SSS time series was greatly improved. Notably, the annual mean SSS of the NZU and ZPO coastal hydrological stations in Guangdong Province exhibited a significant downward trend, indicating a trend of seawater freshening. Conversely, the WZU, BHI, HKO and QLN coastal hydrological stations in the Guangxi and Hainan coastal areas displayed an upward trend in SSS. This study fills the gap in current research on inhomogeneity detection and adjustment of SSS along the coast of the northern SCS. It also provides reliable and accurate first-hand information for research on climate change and marine science along the coast of the northern SCS.
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(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrological Response of Bamboo Plantations on Soil–Water Dynamics in Humid and Semi-Arid Coastal Region of Kenya
by
Stanley Nadir, Rajesh Kaushal, Ambrish Kumar, Jayaraman Durai, Selim Reza, James Ndufa, Ernest Ronoh, Mohammed Elema, John Thiga and Manish Kumar
Water 2024, 16(13), 1894; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131894 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
Soils and water are major resources that drive a country’s economy, and therefore should be conserved and utilized sustainably. However, in Kenya, these two resources are facing huge depletion and degradation due to anthropogenic factors and climate change. Bamboo species, especially on large
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Soils and water are major resources that drive a country’s economy, and therefore should be conserved and utilized sustainably. However, in Kenya, these two resources are facing huge depletion and degradation due to anthropogenic factors and climate change. Bamboo species, especially on large plantations, can significantly alter ecological, hydrological, and biogeochemical processes in the long term. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different species of bamboo and tree plantations on important soil–water processes like infiltration, bulk density, runoff, and soil loss in Kenya. The research was conducted at two sites (Gede in Arabuko Sokoke forest and at Baolala, in Kilifi County) managed by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). The Arabuko Sokoke forest has a hot–humid coastal climate, while Baolala is a hot semi-arid area with little precipitation. The study involved measurement of soil–water infiltration rates using infiltrometers, installing runoff plots to quantify surface runoff and sediment loss, and analyzing soil properties like bulk density for growing periods for different bamboo and tree species. At the Gede forest site, the 30-year-old Thyrsostachys siamensis and Bambusa bambos plantations recorded the highest infiltration rates. Mature bamboo plantations of T. siamensis and B. bambos recorded higher infiltration rates compared to mature plantations of E. camaldulensis and G. arborea. It was observed that the bamboo plantations manifested lower soil bulk density compared to bare land, which recorded the highest bulk density. At Boalala, infiltration rates were significantly higher in the bamboo species compared to grassland and bare land. The painted bamboo (B. vulgaris vittata) had a slightly higher water infiltration rate compared to B. vulgaris. Runoff and erosion patterns reinforced the benefits of more mature bamboo plantations as well. There was a significant correlation between amount of runoff and collected soil loss through erosion. The data showed reductions in surface runoff volumes and sediment loss as the bamboo plantations aged compared to younger species. Therefore, by enhancing infiltration and reducing runoff and erosion, well-managed bamboo plantations can protect valuable soil resources, improve water recharge, and support sustainable land use over the long term. In conclusion, this study showed the strong potential of bamboo as a soil and water conservation tool in Kenya.
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(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
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Open AccessCorrection
Correction: Harenda et al. Spatio-Temporal Morphodynamics of a Nourished Sandy Shore Based on LiDAR Measurements. Water 2024, 16, 1055
by
Marek Harenda, Aleksandra Dudkowska and Piotr Szmytkiewicz
Water 2024, 16(13), 1893; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131893 - 2 Jul 2024
Abstract
There was an error in the original publication [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coastal Sediments: Processes, Transport, Modeling and Hydrodynamics)
Open AccessArticle
Long-Term Performance Evaluation and Fouling Characterization of a Full-Scale Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant
by
Sabrine Chebil, A. Ruiz-García, Soumaya Farhat and Mahmoud Bali
Water 2024, 16(13), 1892; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131892 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Water scarcity in Tunisia’s semi-arid regions necessitates advanced brackish water desalination solutions. This study evaluates the long-term performance and fouling characteristics of the largest brackish water reverse osmosis desalination plant in southern Tunisia over a period of 5026 days. The plant employs two-stage
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Water scarcity in Tunisia’s semi-arid regions necessitates advanced brackish water desalination solutions. This study evaluates the long-term performance and fouling characteristics of the largest brackish water reverse osmosis desalination plant in southern Tunisia over a period of 5026 days. The plant employs two-stage spiral-wound membrane elements to treat groundwater with a salinity of 3.2 g L−1. The pre-treatment process includes oxidation, sand filtration, and cartridge filtration, along with polyphosphonate antiscalant dosing. Membrane performance was assessed through the analysis of operational data, standardization of permeate flow (Qps) and salt passage (SPs), and the calculation of water (A), solute (B), and ionic (Bj) permeability coefficients. Over the operational period, there was an increase in operating pressure, pressure drop, and permeate conductivity, accompanied by a gradual increase in SPs as well as in the solute B and ionic Bj permeability coefficients. The average B increased by 82%, reflecting a decrease in solute rejection over time. Additionally, the ionic permeability coefficients for both SO42− and Cl− ions increased, with Cl− showing an 88% increase and SO42− showing an 87% increase. The produced water’s salinity increased by 67%, indicating a significant loss of membrane performance. To identify the cause of these problems, membrane characterization was analyzed using visual inspection, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The characterization revealed the complex nature of the foulants, with a predominant presence of calcium sulfate, along with minor quantities of calcite, dolomite, and silica. The extent of CaSO4 deposition suggests poor antiscaling efficiency, highlighting the critical importance of selecting an effective antiscalant to mitigate membrane fouling.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Membrane Separation Technology Research)
Open AccessArticle
Enhanced Spatio-Temporal Modeling for Rainfall Forecasting: A High-Resolution Grid Analysis
by
Nurnabi Meherul Alam, Sabyasachi Mitra, Surendra Kumar Pandey, Chayna Jana, Mrinmoy Ray, Sourav Ghosh, Sonali Paul Mazumdar, S. Vishnu Shankar, Ritesh Saha and Gouranga Kar
Water 2024, 16(13), 1891; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131891 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Rainfall serves as a lifeline for crop cultivation in many agriculture-dependent countries including India. Being spatio-temporal data, the forecasting of rainfall becomes a more complex and tedious process. Application of conventional time series models and machine learning techniques will not be a suitable
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Rainfall serves as a lifeline for crop cultivation in many agriculture-dependent countries including India. Being spatio-temporal data, the forecasting of rainfall becomes a more complex and tedious process. Application of conventional time series models and machine learning techniques will not be a suitable choice as they may not adequately account for the complex spatial and temporal dependencies integrated within the data. This demands some data-driven techniques that can handle the intrinsic patterns such as non-linearity, non-stationarity, and non-normality. Space–Time Autoregressive Moving Average (STARMA) models were highly known for its ability to capture both spatial and temporal dependencies, offering a comprehensive framework for analyzing complex datasets. Spatial Weight Matrix (SWM) developed by the STARMA model helps in integrating the spatial effects of the neighboring sites. The study employed a novel dataset consisting of annual rainfall measurements spanning over 50 (1970–2019) years from 119 different locations (grid of 0.25 × 0.25 degree resolution) of West Bengal, a state of India. These extensive datasets were split into testing and training groups that enable the better understanding of the rainfall patterns at a granular level. The study findings demonstrated a notable improvement in forecasting accuracy by the STARMA model that can exhibit promising implications for agricultural management and planning, particularly in regions vulnerable to climate variability.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Research Developments in Hydrological Modelling, Climate Change, and Water Resource Management)
Open AccessReview
Influencing Factors for the Growth of Cladophora and Its Cell Damage and Destruction Mechanism: Implication for Prevention and Treatment
by
Yuyao Wang, Kuo Wang, Xiaojie Bing, Yidan Tan, Qihao Zhou, Juan Jiang and Yuanrong Zhu
Water 2024, 16(13), 1890; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131890 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Cladophora is commonly found in marine and freshwater around the globe and provides productivity for littoral zone microorganisms and invertebrates. The eutrophication of the water body has led to the abnormal proliferation of Cladophora in some water, often in river coast channel outbreaks.
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Cladophora is commonly found in marine and freshwater around the globe and provides productivity for littoral zone microorganisms and invertebrates. The eutrophication of the water body has led to the abnormal proliferation of Cladophora in some water, often in river coast channel outbreaks. Even under the nutritional deficiency systems, such as the central trunk canal of the South-to-North Water Diversion in China, Cladophora’s blooms affect water quality and seriously jeopardize human health. Thus, the structural characteristics of Cladophora cells and spores, the factors affecting the growth of Cladophora cells, and the mechanisms of damage and destruction of Cladophora cells and spores were investigated. Cladophora cells are cylindrical with very thick cell walls. The inner layer of the spore wall is a thin membrane which contains the nucleus of the spore. The growth and spreading of Cladophora cells are affected by various environmental factors such as light, temperature, water depth, water level, nutrient salts, pH, etc. Some physical treatment measures, such as ultrasounds, would destroy the cell walls and membranes of Cladophora by its high-intensity mechanical action. Chemicals and aquatic plant measures can destroy Cladophora cells’ photosynthesis system, antioxidant enzyme systems, proteins, and ultrastructure. Based on the mechanisms for these cell damage and destruction, a combination of measures that are likely to inhibit the growth of Cladophora cells effectively was suggested. Furthermore, the damaged cells of Cladophora could provide some environmental benefits. Aggregated results could provide a scientific basis for further research on the control of blooms of Cladophora or the reuse of Cladophora cells as a natural resource.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological and Mechanism Research on Algal Bloom Mitigation and Resource Recycling)
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Open AccessReview
Water Dams: From Ancient to Present Times and into the Future
by
Andreas N. Angelakis, Alper Baba, Mohammad Valipour, Jörg Dietrich, Elahe Fallah-Mehdipour, Jens Krasilnikoff, Esra Bilgic, Cees Passchier, Vasileios A. Tzanakakis, Rohitashw Kumar, Zhang Min, Nicholas Dercas and Abdelkader T. Ahmed
Water 2024, 16(13), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131889 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Since ancient times, dams have been built to store water, control rivers, and irrigate agricultural land to meet human needs. By the end of the 19th century, hydroelectric power stations arose and extended the purposes of dams. Today, dams can be seen as
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Since ancient times, dams have been built to store water, control rivers, and irrigate agricultural land to meet human needs. By the end of the 19th century, hydroelectric power stations arose and extended the purposes of dams. Today, dams can be seen as part of the renewable energy supply infrastructure. The word dam comes from French and is defined in dictionaries using words like strange, dike, and obstacle. In other words, a dam is a structure that stores water and directs it to the desired location, with a dam being built in front of river valleys. Dams built on rivers serve various purposes such as the supply of drinking water, agricultural irrigation, flood control, the supply of industrial water, power generation, recreation, the movement control of solids, and fisheries. Dams can also be built in a catchment area to capture and store the rainwater in arid and semi-arid areas. Dams can be built from concrete or natural materials such as earth and rock. There are various types of dams: embankment dams (earth-fill dams, rock-fill dams, and rock-fill dams with concrete faces) and rigid dams (gravity dams, rolled compacted concrete dams, arch dams, and buttress dams). A gravity dam is a straight wall of stone masonry or earthen material that can withstand the full force of the water pressure. In other words, the pressure of the water transfers the vertical compressive forces and horizontal shear forces to the foundations beneath the dam. The strength of a gravity dam ultimately depends on its weight and the strength of its foundations. Most dams built in ancient times were constructed as gravity dams. An arch dam, on the other hand, has a convex curved surface that faces the water. The forces generated by the water pressure are transferred to the sides of the structure by horizontal lines. The horizontal, normal, and shear forces resist the weight at the edges. When viewed in a horizontal section, an arch dam has a curved shape. This type of dam can also resist water pressure due to its particular shape that allows the transfer of the forces generated by the stored water to the rock foundations. This article takes a detailed look at hydraulic engineering in dams over the millennia. Lessons should be learned from the successful and unsuccessful applications and operations of dams. Water resource managers, policymakers, and stakeholders can use these lessons to achieve sustainable development goals in times of climate change and water crisis.
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(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Water)
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Open AccessReview
Recent Advances in Biofiltration for PPCP Removal from Water
by
Pinyi Lin, Zhuwei Liao, Gequan Wu, Liwei Yang, Jie Fu and Yin Luo
Water 2024, 16(13), 1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131888 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
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As emerging pollutants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water have attracted more and more attention because of their harmfulness to the ecosystem and human health. Due to the perpetual input from sewage/wastewater effluents, landfill leachates, urban/agricultural runoff, etc., PPCPs in the
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As emerging pollutants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water have attracted more and more attention because of their harmfulness to the ecosystem and human health. Due to the perpetual input from sewage/wastewater effluents, landfill leachates, urban/agricultural runoff, etc., PPCPs in the aquatic environment are generally “pseudo-persistent”. Conventional filtration in the water treatment process cannot effectively remove PPCPs, while biofiltration, a synergistic combination of adsorption and biodegradation, is an effective upgrade method that has received great attention and application in recent years. This paper systematically reviewed the principle of biofiltration and its efficiency in the removal of PPCPs. The important operational parameters influencing biofiltration performance such as filter media, temperature, backwash conditions, empty bed contact time, etc. were summarized. In addition, the limitations and prospects of the current research on biofiltration were also pointed out.
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Open AccessArticle
Improving Flood Forecasting Skill by Combining Ensemble Precipitation Forecasts and Multiple Hydrological Models in a Mountainous Basin
by
Yiheng Xiang, Tao Peng, Haixia Qi, Zhiyuan Yin and Tieyuan Shen
Water 2024, 16(13), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131887 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Ensemble precipitation forecasts (EPFs) derived from single numerical weather predictions (NWPs) often miss extreme events, and individual hydrological models (HMs) often fail to accurately capture all types of flows, including flood peaks. To address these shortcomings, this study introduced four “EPF + HM”
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Ensemble precipitation forecasts (EPFs) derived from single numerical weather predictions (NWPs) often miss extreme events, and individual hydrological models (HMs) often fail to accurately capture all types of flows, including flood peaks. To address these shortcomings, this study introduced four “EPF + HM” schemes for ensemble flood forecasting (EFF) by combining two EPFs and two HMs. A generator-based post-processing (GPP) method was applied to correct biases and under-dispersion within the raw EPF data. The effectiveness of these schemes in delivering high-quality flood forecasts was assessed using both deterministic and probabilistic metrics. The results indicate that, once post-processed by GPP, all proposed schemes show improvements in both deterministic and probabilistic performances, with skillful flood forecasts for 1–7 lead days. The deterioration in forecast performance with extended lead times is also lessened. Notably, the results indicate that uncertainty within hydrological models has a more pronounced impact on capturing flood peaks than uncertainty in precipitation inputs. This study recommends combining individual EPF with multiple hydrological models for reliable flood forecasting. In conclusion, effective flood forecasting necessitates employing post-processing techniques to correct EPFs and accounting for the uncertainty inherent in hydrological models, rather than relying solely on the uncertainty of the input data.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Extreme Precipitation under Climate Change)
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Open AccessArticle
Under the Strong Influence of Human Activities: The Patterns and Controlling Factors of River Water Chemistry Changes—A Case Study of the Lower Yellow River
by
Chaobin Ren and Lu Liu
Water 2024, 16(13), 1886; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131886 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
This study provides an in-depth analysis of the hydrochemical characteristics and their controlling factors in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Through water quality sampling and analysis over two hydrological periods within a year, combined with hydrochemical methods and machine learning techniques,
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This study provides an in-depth analysis of the hydrochemical characteristics and their controlling factors in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Through water quality sampling and analysis over two hydrological periods within a year, combined with hydrochemical methods and machine learning techniques, the study reveals the joint impact of natural factors and human activities on the spatiotemporal variations in hydrochemical constituents. The findings indicate that the water in the lower reaches of the Yellow River exhibits weak alkalinity (the pH is between 7 and 8), with the primary hydrochemical type being HCO3·SO4—Ca·Na·Mg. The temporal variation in the hydrochemical constituents is mainly influenced by rainfall, where nitrate levels are higher during the flood season due to the flushing effect of rainfall, whereas other hydrochemical constituents show an opposite temporal pattern due to the dilution effect of rainfall. The spatial variation in the Yellow River’s hydrochemistry is primarily controlled by a combination of human activities and rainfall. Using Gibbs diagram analysis, it is identified that rock weathering is the main source of ionic constituents, while agricultural fertilization, industrial emissions, and domestic wastewater discharge have significant impacts on the hydrochemical constituents. Compared to other rivers worldwide, the concentration of hydrochemical constituents in the lower reaches of the Yellow River is relatively high, especially nitrate and sulfate, which is closely related to the geological characteristics of the Yellow River basin and intense human activities in the middle and lower reaches. Principal component analysis reveals that the main controlling factors for hydrochemical constituents during the dry season in the lower reaches of the Yellow River are rock weathering dissolution and industrial activities, followed by domestic wastewater; during the flood season, the main controlling factors are rock weathering dissolution and industrial activities, followed by agricultural activities and domestic wastewater. The research findings provide theoretical support for water resource management and water quality protection in the lower reaches of the Yellow River.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Assessment of River Basins)
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Open AccessArticle
Predicting Water Inflow in Tunnel Construction: A Fracture Network Model with Non-Darcy Flow Considerations
by
Ke Hu, Liang Yao, Jianxing Liao, Hong Wang, Jiashun Luo and Xiangdong Xu
Water 2024, 16(13), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131885 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Fractures are widely distributed in karst areas, and when flow rates are high, they exhibit complex nonlinear behavior that cannot be accurately described by Darcy’s law. In this work, a hydro-mechanical coupling model based on a discrete fracture network is proposed to predict
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Fractures are widely distributed in karst areas, and when flow rates are high, they exhibit complex nonlinear behavior that cannot be accurately described by Darcy’s law. In this work, a hydro-mechanical coupling model based on a discrete fracture network is proposed to predict tunnel water inflow, accounting for the impact of non-Darcy flow. The model’s feasibility has been validated by comparing it with experimental results and the field measurements of flow rates at the Bodaoling Tunnel in Guizhou, China. The results show that Darcy flow tends to overestimate water inflow by approximately 25% compared to non-Darcy flow. The non-Darcy effect grows with the increase in initial fracture width and empirical constant q. When q exceeds 8.77 × 10−6, the growth rate of the Forchheimer number along the fracture width slowed down, and the inhibitory effect of non-Darcy flow on flow became gentle. Additionally, in a complex fracture network, the inflow rate limited by non-Darcy flow at one point drives the water flow through a connect fracture to another point, which increases the difficulty in water inflow prediction. This work highlights the importance of non-Darcy flow and fracture networks when accurately predicting water inflow in tunnels.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Groundwater and Surface Water on the Natural Geo-Hazards, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Water Scarcity and Risk of Acute Gastrointestinal Infections in Mexican Households: A Latent Class Analysis
by
Gerzaín Avilés-Polanco, Luis Felipe Beltrán-Morales, Adriana Miranda-Torres and Enrique Troyo-Diéguez
Water 2024, 16(13), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131884 - 1 Jul 2024
Abstract
Lack of access to piped water, as well as inadequate quantity and quality of water, are risk factors for acute gastrointestinal infections. In 2022, 4.9% of households in Mexico did not have piped water; 19.3% lacked, at some point, sufficient water for hygiene;
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Lack of access to piped water, as well as inadequate quantity and quality of water, are risk factors for acute gastrointestinal infections. In 2022, 4.9% of households in Mexico did not have piped water; 19.3% lacked, at some point, sufficient water for hygiene; and 18.9% perceived that the water was unfit for human consumption. During the same year, at least 1,441,226 people suffered from a gastrointestinal infection. Households without access to piped water and with insufficient water for hygiene were 27% more likely to suffer from a gastrointestinal infection than households with piped water and a sufficient supply for hygiene (odds ratio: 1.27; CI 95%: 1.26–1.28). The latent class analysis shows that 22% of households belong to the high-risk class of suffering gastrointestinal infections associated with a lack of piped water, insufficient quantity, and poor quality of water. These results provide elements for the design of public health programs through the supply of water for consumption and sanitation services.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health and Water Quality)
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