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Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 29592

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Nenad Potočić

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Division of Forest Ecology, Croatian Forest Research Institute, Cvjetno naselje 41, 10450 Jastrebarsko, Croatia
Interests: tree mineral nutrition; crown condition and foliar injury; biochemical stress indicators
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The changing climate and air pollution are among the greatest threats to the health and functioning of forest ecosystems, jeopardizing their ecological and economic functions and services. The impact of increasing temperatures and extreme weather events (droughts, storms, and temperature and precipitation extremes) on the vitality of forest trees is often difficult to separate from the impact of nitrogen deposition, tropospheric ozone, or heavy metals, as they can exhibit synergistic effects. For example, forest soil acidification, atmospheric N deposition, and climate change are all partly responsible for the continuous decrease in foliar P concentrations in Europe, causing reduced tree growth.

A better understanding of physiological processes influencing tree vitality under the changing climate and air pollution pressures requires considerable research efforts and constant advancements in research methods and approaches.

The use of indicators is elementary in modern forest ecophysiology research, as it enables us to effectively measure the stress response of trees and helps us estimate the level of damage to trees and forest ecosystems.

For this Special Issue, we welcome original research papers dealing with ecophysiological indicators of the response of forest trees to environmental stress. Examples of such indicators are photosynthetic activity and other biochemical stress indicators, nutrients in different tree compartments, leaf loss, tree growth and tree mortality, visible symptoms of stress in foliage, and microscopical markers of stress. We also welcome reviews of recent advances in forest ecophysiology.

Please note that due to increased interest, the decision was made to prolong the submission deadline for this Special Issue. We are now looking forward to receive your manuscripts until the 31st October 2022.

Dr. Nenad Potočić
Guest Editor

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Keywords

climate change
air pollution
dieback
leaf injury
growth
water and nutrient uptake
photosynthesis
oxidative stress

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

2 pages, 192 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality

by Nenad Potočić

Plants 2023, 12(5), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051063 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1188

Abstract

Back in the beginning of the year 2021, when the work on this Special Issue started, it was quite clear that the topics of tree stress response and the ecophysiological indicators of tree vitality were both current and important, but the attitude of [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

13 pages, 2108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Tree Decline Varies the Anatomical Features in Quercus brantii

by Forough Soheili, Hazandy Abdul-Hamid, Isaac Almasi, Mehdi Heydari, Afsaneh Tongo, Stephen Woodward and Hamid Reza Naji

Plants 2023, 12(2), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12020377 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1985

Abstract

Drought has serious effects on forests, especially semi-arid and arid forests, around the world. Zagros Forest in Iran has been severely affected by drought, which has led to the decline of the most common tree species, Persian oak (Quercus brantii). The objective of this study was to determine the effects of drought on the anatomical structure of Persian oak. Three healthy and three declined trees were sampled from each of two forest sites in Ilam Forest. Discs were cut at breast height, and three sapwood blocks were taken near the bark of each tree for sectioning. The anatomical characteristics measured included fiber length (FL), fiber wall thickness (FWT), number of axial parenchymal cells (NPC), ray number (RN), ray width (RW), and number of calcium oxalate crystals. Differences between healthy and declined trees were observed in the abundance of NPC and in RN, FL, and FWT, while no differences occurred in the number of oxalate crystals. The decline had uncertain effects on the FL of trees from sites A and B, which showed values of 700.5 and 837.3 μm compared with 592.7 and 919.6 μm in healthy trees. However, the decline resulted in an increase in the FWT of trees from sites A and B (9.33 and 11.53 μm) compared with healthy trees (5.23 and 9.56 μm). NPC, RN, and RW also increased in declined individuals from sites A and B (28.40 and 28.40 mm⁻¹; 41.06 and 48.60 mm⁻¹; 18.60 and 23.20 μm, respectively) compared with healthy trees (20.50 and 19.63 mm⁻²; 31.60 and 28.30 mm⁻²; 17.93 and 15.30 μm, respectively). Thus, drought caused measurable changes in the anatomical characteristics of declined trees compared with healthy trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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17 pages, 1420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Environmental Factors on the Nutrition of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Varies with Defoliation

by Mladen Ognjenović, Ivan Seletković, Mia Marušić, Mathieu Jonard, Pasi Rautio, Volkmar Timmermann, Melita Perčec Tadić, Miran Lanšćak, Damir Ugarković and Nenad Potočić

Plants 2023, 12(1), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12010168 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1857

Abstract

Despite being adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, the vitality of European beech is expected to be significantly affected by the projected effects of climate change, which we attempted to assess with foliar nutrition and crown defoliation, as two different, yet interlinked vitality indicators. Based on 28 beech plots of the ICP Forests Level I network, we set out to investigate the nutritional status of beech in Croatia, the relation of its defoliation and nutrient status, and the effects of environmental factors on this relation. The results indicate a generally satisfactory nutrition of common beech in Croatia. Links between defoliation and nutrition of beech are not very direct or very prominent; differences were observed only in some years and on limited number of plots. However, the applied multinomial logistic regression models show that environmental factors affect the relationship between defoliation and nutrition, as climate and altitude influence the occurrence of differences in foliar nutrition between defoliation categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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20 pages, 4868 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dynamics Changes in Basal Area Increment, Carbon Isotopes Composition and Water Use Efficiency in Pine as Response to Water and Heat Stress in Silesia, Poland

by Barbara Sensuła and Sławomir Wilczyński

Plants 2022, 11(24), 3569; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11243569 - 17 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

Trees can be used as archives of changes in the environment. In this paper, we present the results of the analysis of the impact of water stress and increase in air temperature on BAI and carbon stable isotopic composition and water use efficiency of pine. Dendrochronological methods together with mass spectrometry techniques give a possibility to conduct a detailed investigation of pine growing in four industrial forests in Silesia (Poland). Detailed analysis-based bootstrap and moving correlation between climatic indices (temperature, precipitation, and Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index) and tree parameters give the chance to check if the climatic signals recorded by trees can be hidden or modified over a longer period of time. Trees have been found to be very sensitive to weather conditions, but their sensitivity can be modified and masked by the effect of pollution. Scots pine trees at all sites systematically increased the basal area increment (BAI) and the intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) and decreased δ¹³C in the last century. Furthermore, their sensitivity to the climatic factor remained at a relatively high level. Industrial pollution caused a small reduction in the wood growth of pines and an increase in the heterogeneity of annual growth responses of trees. The main factors influencing the formation of wood in the pines were thermal conditions in the winter season and pluvial conditions in the previous autumn, and also in spring and summer in the year of tree ring formation. The impact of thermal and pluvial conditions in the year of tree ring formation has also been reflected in the isotopic composition of tree rings and water use efficiency. Three different scenarios of trees’ reaction link to the reduction of stomata conductance or changes in photosynthesis rate as the response to climate changes in the last 40 years have been proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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15 pages, 2496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Foliar Nutrition Status and Indicators of Oxidative Stress Associated with Tree Defoliation of Four Mediterranean Forest Species?

by Lucija Lovreškov, Ivana Radojčić Redovniković, Ivan Limić, Nenad Potočić, Ivan Seletković, Mia Marušić, Ana Jurinjak Tušek, Tamara Jakovljević and Lukrecija Butorac

Plants 2022, 11(24), 3484; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11243484 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1849

Abstract

Mediterranean forest ecosystems in Croatia are of very high significance because of the ecological functions they provide. This region is highly sensitive to abiotic stresses such as air pollution, high sunlight, and high temperatures alongside dry periods; therefore, it is important to monitor the state of these forest ecosystems and how they respond to these stresses. This study was conducted on trees in situ and focused on the four most important forest species in the Mediterranean region in Croatia: pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens Willd.), holm oak (Quercus ilex L.), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) and black pine (Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold.). Trees were selected and divided into two groups: trees with defoliation of >25% (defoliated) and trees with defoliation of ≤25% (undefoliated). Leaves and needles were collected from selected trees. Differences in chlorophyll content, hydrogen peroxide content, lipid peroxidation and enzyme activity (superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, non-specific peroxidase), and nutrient content between the defoliated and undefoliated trees of the examined species were determined. The results showed that there were significant differences for all species between the defoliated and undefoliated trees for at least one of the examined parameters. A principal component analysis showed that the enzyme ascorbate peroxidase can be an indicator of oxidative stress caused by ozone. By using oxidative stress indicators, it is possible to determine whether the trees are under stress even before visual damage occurs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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23 pages, 2640 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metal- and Organ-Specific Response to Heavy Metal-Induced Stress Mediated by Antioxidant Enzymes’ Activities, Polyamines, and Plant Hormones Levels in Populus deltoides

by Marko Kebert, Saša Kostić, Vanja Vuksanović, Anđelina Gavranović Markić, Biljana Kiprovski, Martina Zorić and Saša Orlović

Plants 2022, 11(23), 3246; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233246 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

Besides anthropogenic factors, climate change causes altered precipitation patterns that indirectly affect the increase of heavy metals in soils due to hydrological effects and enhanced leaching (i.e., Cd and Ni), especially in the vicinity of mines and smelters. Phytoextraction is a well-known, powerful “green” technique for environmental clean-up that uses plants to extract, sequester, and/or detoxify heavy metals, and it makes significant contributions to the removal of persistent inorganic pollutants from soils. Poplar species, due to their growth features, high transpiration rate, large biomass, and feasible reproduction represent great candidates for phytoextraction technology. However, the consequences of concomitant oxidative stress upon plant metabolism and the mechanism of the poplar’s tolerance to heavy metal-induced stress are still not completely understood. In this study, cuttings of poplar species (Populus deltoides W. Bartram ex Marshall) were separately exposed to two heavy metals (Cd²⁺ and Ni²⁺) that were triple the maximum allowed amount (MAA) (according to national legislation). The aim of the study was to estimate the effects of heavy metals on: (I) the accumulation of free and conjugated polyamines, (II) plant hormones (including abscisic acid-ABA and indole-3-acetic acid-IAA), and (III) the activities of different antioxidant enzymes at root and leaf levels. By using the selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode of gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) coupled with the isotopically labeled technique, amounts of ABA and IAA were quantified, while polyamine amounts were determined by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorometric detection after derivatization. The results showed that P. deltoides responded to elevated concentrations of heavy metals in soils by exhibiting metal- and organ-specific tolerance. Knowledge about tolerance mechanisms is of great importance for the development of phytoremediation technology and afforestation programs for polluted soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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15 pages, 6035 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Do Different Tree-Ring Proxies Contain Different Temperature Signals? A Case Study of Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) in the Eastern Carpathians

by Andrei Popa, Ionel Popa, Cătălin-Constantin Roibu and Ovidiu Nicolae Badea

Plants 2022, 11(18), 2428; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11182428 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

One of the most important proxy archives for past climate variation is tree rings. Tree-ring parameters offer valuable knowledge regarding how trees respond and adapt to environmental changes. Trees encode all environmental changes in different tree-ring parameters. In this study, we analyzed how air temperature is encoded in different Norway spruce tree-ring proxies along an altitude gradient in an intramountain valley of the Carpathians. The study area, in the Gheorgheni region, Romania (Eastern Carpathians), has a mountain climate with a frequent temperature inversion in winter. The climate–growth relationship was analyzed for two contrasting altitudes: low elevation, i.e., below 1000 m a.s.l., and high elevation, i.e., above 1500 m a.s.l. Two local weather stations, one in the valley and the other on the upper part of the mountains, provide daily temperatures (Joseni—750 m a.s.l. and Bucin—1282 m a.s.l.). The bootstrap Pearson correlation between cumulative daily temperature data and three tree-ring proxies (tree-ring width—TRW, basal area increment—BAI, and blue intensity—BI) was computed for each series. The results show that elevation modulates the climate response pattern in the case of BI, and remains relatively similar for TRW and BAI. The winter temperature’s positive influence on spruce growth was observed in both TRW and BAI chronologies. Additionally, the BAI chronology highlights a positive relationship with summer temperature. The highest correlation coefficient (r = 0.551, p < 0.05, n = 41) was recorded between BI residual chronology from high elevation series and summer/autumn temperature from the upper-part weather station for a cumulative period of 59 days (the second half of August to the beginning of October). Our results show that, for this intramountain valley of the Eastern Carpathians, different tree-ring proxies capture different climate signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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14 pages, 16820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visible Foliar Injury and Ecophysiological Responses to Ozone and Drought in Oak Seedlings

by Barbara Baesso Moura, Elena Paoletti, Ovidiu Badea, Francesco Ferrini and Yasutomo Hoshika

Plants 2022, 11(14), 1836; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11141836 - 13 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2073

Abstract

To verify the responses of visible foliar injury (VFI), we exposed seedlings of three oak species for 4.5 months in an open air facility, using differing ozone (O₃) and drought treatments: O₃ (three levels from ambient to ×1.4 ambient), and drought (three levels of irrigation from 40% to 100% field capacity). We related the accumulated phytotoxic O₃ dose (POD₁) and cumulative drought index (CDI) to the O₃ and drought VFI and assessed growth increment (height, diameter, leaf number), biomass (of all organs), and physiological parameters: net photosynthesis per plant (P_n), photosynthetic nitrogen (PNUE) and phosphorus use efficiency (PPUE)). The results indicated that an increase in POD₁ promoted O₃ VFI in Quercus robur and Quercus pubescens, while Quercus ilex was asymptomatic. The POD₁-based critical level at the onset of O₃ VFI was lower for Q. robur than for Q. pubescens (12.2 vs. 15.6 mmol m⁻² POD₁). Interestingly, drought reduced O₃ VFI in Q. robur but increased it in Q. pubescens. Both O₃ and drought were detrimental to the plant biomass. However, Q. robur and Q. pubescens invested more in shoots than in roots, while Q. ilex invested more in roots, which might be related to a hormetic mechanism. P_n, PNUE and PPUE decreased in all species under drought, and only in the sensitive Q. robur (PPUE) and Q. pubescens (PNUE) under O₃. This study confirms that POD₁ is a good indicator to explain the development of O₃ VFI and helps a differential diagnosis of co-occurring drought and O₃ VFI in oak forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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26 pages, 3518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Species-Level Differences in Osmoprotectants and Antioxidants Contribute to Stress Tolerance of Quercus robur L., and Q. cerris L. Seedlings under Water Deficit and High Temperatures

by Marko Kebert, Vanja Vuksanović, Jacqueline Stefels, Mirjana Bojović, Rita Horák, Saša Kostić, Branislav Kovačević, Saša Orlović, Luisa Neri, Massimiliano Magli and Francesca Rapparini

Plants 2022, 11(13), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11131744 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2271

Abstract

The general aim of this work was to compare the leaf-level responses of different protective components to water deficit and high temperatures in Quercus cerris L. and Quercus robur L. Several biochemical components of the osmotic adjustment and antioxidant system were investigated together with changes in hormones. Q. cerris and Q. robur seedlings responded to water deficit and high temperatures by: (1) activating a different pattern of osmoregulation and antioxidant mechanisms depending on the species and on the nature of the stress; (2) upregulating the synthesis of a newly-explored osmoprotectant, dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP); (3) trading-off between metabolites; and (4) modulating hormone levels. Under water deficit, Q. cerris had a higher antioxidant capacity compared to Q. robur, which showed a lower investment in the antioxidant system. In both species, exposure to high temperatures induced a strong osmoregulation capacity that appeared largely conferred by DMSP in Q. cerris and by glycine betaine in Q. robur. Collectively, the more stress-responsive compounds in each species were those present at a significant basal level in non-stress conditions. Our results were discussed in terms of pre-adaptation and stress-induced metabolic patterns as related to species-specific stress tolerance features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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20 pages, 2811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Climate on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) Growth Southeast of the European Alps

by Tom Levanič and Hana Štraus

Plants 2022, 11(12), 1571; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11121571 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2488

Abstract

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) is a non-native tree species in Slovenia with the potential to partially replace Norway spruce in our native forests. Compared to spruce, it has several advantages in terms of volume growth, wood quality and tolerance to drought. This is important given the changing climate in which spruce is confronted with serious problems caused by increasing temperatures and drought stress. At three sites (one on non-carbonate bedrock and deep soils, and two on limestone with soil layers of varying depths), 20 Douglas-fir and 20 spruce per site were sampled in order to compare their radial growth response to climate and drought events. The radial growth of Douglas-fir exceeds that of spruce by about 20% on comparable sites. It is more responsive to climate than spruce. Above-average temperatures in February and March have a significant positive effect on the radial growth of Douglas-fir. In recent decades, above-average summer precipitation has also had a positive influence on the radial growth of Douglas-fir. Compared to spruce, Douglas-fir is less sensitive to extreme drought events. Our results indicate that Douglas-fir may be a good substitute for spruce in semi-natural managed forest stands in Slovenia. The planting of Douglas-fir should be allowed in Slovenian forests, but the proportion of it in forest stands should be kept lower than is the case with spruce today. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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17 pages, 1606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of an Extremely Dry Period on Tree Defoliation and Tree Mortality in Serbia

by Goran Češljar, Filip Jovanović, Ljiljana Brašanac-Bosanac, Ilija Đorđević, Suzana Mitrović, Saša Eremija, Tatjana Ćirković-Mitrović and Aleksandar Lučić

Plants 2022, 11(10), 1286; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11101286 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2467

Abstract

This paper presents research results on forest decline in Serbia. The results were obtained through monitoring defoliation of 34 tree species at 130 sample plots during the period from 2004 to 2018. This research aimed to determine whether the occurrence of defoliation and tree mortality were caused by drought. Defoliation was assessed in 5% steps according to the International Co-operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests) methodology. All the trees recorded as dead were singled out, and annual mortality rates were calculated. To determine changes in air temperature and precipitation regimes during the study period, we processed and analysed climatic data related to air temperature and precipitation throughout the year and in the growing season at 28 main weather stations in Serbia. Tree mortality patterns were established by classifying trees into three groups. The first group of trees exhibited a gradual increase in defoliation during the last few years of monitoring, with dying as the final outcome. The second group was characterised by sudden death of trees. The third group of trees reached a higher degree of defoliation immediately after the first monitoring year, and the trees died after several years. Tree mortality rates were compared between years using the Standardised Precipitation Evaporation Index (SPI) and the Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), the most common methods used to monitor drought. The most intensive forest decline was recorded during the period from 2013 to 2016, when the largest percentage of the total number of all trees died. According to the annual mortality rates calculated for the three observation periods (2004–2008, 2009–2013, and 2014–2018) the highest forest decline rate was recorded in the period from 2014 to 2018, with no statistically significant difference between broadleaved and coniferous tree species. As the sample of coniferous species was small, the number of sample plots should be increased in order to achieve better systematic forest condition monitoring in Serbia. The analysis of the relationship between defoliation and climatic parameters proved the correlation between them. It was noted that the forest decline in Serbia was preceded by an extremely dry period with high temperatures from 2011 to 2013, supporting the hypothesis that it was caused by drought. We therefore conclude that these unfavourable climatic conditions had serious and long-term consequences on forest ecosystems in Serbia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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13 pages, 1714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defoliation Change of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Depends on Previous Year Drought

by Mladen Ognjenović, Ivan Seletković, Nenad Potočić, Mia Marušić, Melita Perčec Tadić, Mathieu Jonard, Pasi Rautio, Volkmar Timmermann, Lucija Lovreškov and Damir Ugarković

Plants 2022, 11(6), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11060730 - 9 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3473

Abstract

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests provide multiple essential ecosystem goods and services. The projected climatic conditions for the current century will significantly affect the vitality of European beech. The expected impact of climate change on forest ecosystems will be potentially stronger in southeast Europe than on the rest of the continent. Therefore, our aim was to use the long-term monitoring data of crown vitality indicators in Croatia to identify long-term trends, and to investigate the influence of current and previous year climate conditions and available site factors using defoliation (DEF) and defoliation change (ΔDEF) as response variables. The results reveal an increasing trend of DEF during the study period from 1996 to 2017. In contrast, no significant trend in annual ΔDEF was observed. The applied linear mixed effects models indicate a very strong influence of previous year drought on ΔDEF, while climate conditions have a weak or insignificant effect on DEF. The results suggest that site factors explain 25 to 30% DEF variance, while similar values of conditional and marginal R² show a uniform influence of drought on ΔDEF. These results suggest that DEF represents the accumulated impact of location-specific stressful environmental conditions on tree vitality, while ΔDEF reflects intense stress and represents the current or recent status of tree vitality that could be more appropriate for analysing the effect of climate conditions on forest trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Ecophysiology: Stress Response and Ecophysiological Indicators of Tree Vitality)

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