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Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 February 2023) | Viewed by 32091

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Johannes Schenk

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Ferrous Metallurgy Lehrstuhl für Eisen- und Stahlmetallurgie, Montanuniversität Leoben, Franz-Josef-Strasse 18, 8700 Leoben, Austria
Interests: ironmaking; crude steel production; characterization of raw materials; reduction kinetics of iron oxide; experimental process simulation; mathematical modelling of metallurgical processes
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Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

One of the important challenges of the global steel industry in the coming decades is to implement technologies which allow a climate neutral steel production. The Paris Agreement from 2015 is a landmark to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future. The steel sector was responsible for 8% of the world´s anthropogenic CO₂ emission in 2018.

This Special Issue focuses on research which contributes to reducing the intensity of fossil carbon usage in primary metallurgy for iron and steelmaking. We invite you to submit papers which deal with methods and technologies for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions of the current production routes as well as for breakthrough technologies to avoid these emissions. Authors working in their research for technological approaches such as process integration (PI), carbon direct avoidance (CDA), as well as carbon capture storage and use (CCSU) are particularly invited to submit their works.

Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcome.

Prof. Dr. Johannes Schenk
Guest Editor

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Keywords

fossil and renewable reducing agents
blast furnace route
direct and smelting reduction technology
oxygen steelmaking
electric arc furnace steelmaking
carbon free steelmaking
process integration
carbon direct avoidance
carbon capture storage and use (CCSU)
direct steelmaking

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 4947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations on the Interaction Behavior between Direct Reduced Iron and Various Melts

by Andreas Pfeiffer, Gerald Wimmer and Johannes Schenk

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5691; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165691 - 18 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2446

Abstract

Since the European Union defined ambitious CO₂ emission targets, low-carbon-emission alternatives to the widespread integrated blast furnace (BF)—basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking strategy—are demanded. Direct reduction (DR) with natural gas as the reducing agent, already an industrially applied technology, is such an alternative. Consequently, the melting behavior of its intermediate product, i.e., direct reduced iron (DRI), in either an electric arc furnace (EAF) or a submerged arc furnace (SAF), is of great interest. Based on the conditions in these aggregates, a test series to experimentally simulate the first few seconds after charging DRI was defined. DRI samples with different carbon contents and hot briquetted iron (HBI) were immersed in high- and low-carbon melts as well as high- and low-iron oxide slags. The reacted samples were quenched in liquid nitrogen. The specimens were qualitatively evaluated by investigating their surfaces and cross sections. The dissolution of carbon-free DRI progressed relatively slowly and was driven by heat transfer. However, carbon, present either in the DRI sample or in the melt, not only accelerated the dissolution process, but also reacted with residual iron oxide in the pellet or the slag. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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23 pages, 5551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Methodological Approach to the Characterization of Optimal Charging Rates at the Hydrogen Plasma Smelting Reduction Process Part 1: Method

by Michael Andreas Zarl, Daniel Ernst, Julian Cejka and Johannes Schenk

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4767; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144767 - 07 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

The development of a carbon lean steel production process following the concept of direct carbon avoidance is one of the most challenging tasks the iron and steel industry must tackle in just a few decades. The necessary drastic reduction of 80% of the process’s inherent emissions by 2050 is only possible if a new process concept that uses hydrogen as the primary reductant is developed. The Hydrogen Plasma Smelting Reduction (HPSR) of ultra-fine iron ores is one of those promising concepts. The principle was already proven at a lab scale. The erection of a bench-scale facility followed this, and further scaled-ups are already planned for the upcoming years. For this scale-up, a better understanding of the fundamentals of the process is needed. In particular, knowledge of the kinetics of the process is essential for future economically feasible operations. This investigation shows the principles for evaluating and comparing the process kinetics under varying test setups by defining a representative kinetic parameter. Aside from the fundamentals for this definition, the conducted trials for the first evaluation are shown and explained. Several differences in the reduction behavior of the material at varying parameters of the process have already be shown. However, this investigation focuses on the description and definition of the method. An overall series of trials for detailed investigations will be conducted as a follow-up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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22 pages, 9081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Methodological Approach on the Characterization of Optimal Charging Rates at the Hydrogen Plasma Smelting Reduction Process Part 2: Results

by Daniel Ernst, Michael Andreas Zarl, Julian Cejka and Johannes Schenk

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4065; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124065 - 08 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1403

Abstract

To meet the target for anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, the European steel industry is obliged to reduce its emissions. A possible pathway to reach this requirement is through developments of new technologies for a GHG-free steel production. One of these processes is the hydrogen plasma smelting reduction (HPSR) developed since 1992 at the Chair of Ferrous Metallurgy at the Montanuniversitaet Leoben in Austria. Based on the already available publication of the methodology in this work, potential process parameters were investigated that influence the reduction kinetics during continuous charging to improve the process further. Preliminary tests with different charging rates and plasma gas compositions were carried out to investigate the impacts on the individual steps of the reduction process. In the main experiments, the obtained parameters were used to determine the effect of the pre-reduction degree on the kinetics and the hydrogen conversion. Finally, the preliminary and main trials were statistically evaluated using the program MODDE^® 13 Pro to identify the significant influences on reduction time, oxygen removal rate, and hydrogen conversion. High hydrogen utilization degrees could be achieved with high iron ore feeding rates and low hydrogen concentrations in the plasma gas composition. The subsequent low reduction degree and thus a high proportion of oxide melt leads to a high oxygen removal rate in the post-reduction phase and, consequently, short process times. Calculations of the reduction constant showed an average value of 1.13 × 10⁻⁵ kg oxygen/m² s Pa, which is seven times higher than the value given in literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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17 pages, 2809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Iron Ore Ultra-Fines for Hydrogen-Based Fluidized Bed Direct Reduction—A Mathematical Evaluation

by Thomas Wolfinger, Daniel Spreitzer and Johannes Schenk

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3943; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113943 - 01 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

This mathematical evaluation focuses on iron ore ultra-fines for their use in a novel hydrogen-based fluidized bed direct reduction process. The benefits of such a process include reduced CO₂ emissions and energy consumption per ton of product, lower operational and capital expenditure, and a higher oxide yield. Typical samples of iron ore ultra-fines, such as pellet feed, are given and classified for a fluidized bed. An operating field for a hydrogen-based fluidized bed direct reduction process using iron ore ultra-fines is shown in the fluidized state diagram following Reh’s approach and compared to other processes. The effects of the process conditions and the agglomeration phenomenon sticking were analyzed and evaluated with mathematical case studies. The agglomeration phenomenon sticking was identified as the most critical issue; thus, the dependencies of the fluid dynamics on the characteristic diameter were examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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17 pages, 2720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metallurgical Coke Production with Biomass Additives: Study of Biocoke Properties for Blast Furnace and Submerged Arc Furnace Purposes

by Oleg Bazaluk, Lina Kieush, Andrii Koveria, Johannes Schenk, Andreas Pfeiffer, Heng Zheng and Vasyl Lozynskyi

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1147; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031147 - 01 Feb 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3133

Abstract

Biocoke has the potential to reduce the fossil-based materials in metallurgical processes, along with mitigating anthropogenic CO₂- and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Reducing those emissions is possible by using bio-based carbon, which is CO₂-neutral, as a partial replacement of fossil carbon. In this paper, the effect of adding 5, 10, 15, 30, and 45 wt.% biomass pellets on the reactivity, the physicomechanical, and electrical properties of biocoke was established to assess the possibility of using it as a fuel and reducing agent for a blast furnace (BF) or as a carbon source in a submerged arc furnace (SAF). Biocoke was obtained under laboratory conditions at final coking temperatures of 950 or 1100 °C. Research results indicate that for BF purposes, 5 wt.% biomass additives are the maximum as the reactivity increases and the strength after reaction with CO₂ decreases. On the other hand, biocoke’s physicomechanical and electrical properties, obtained at a carbonization temperature of 950 °C, can be considered a promising option for the SAF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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12 pages, 2570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Method of Evaluating the Thermal Properties of Metallurgical Cokes under High Temperature

by Guangzhi Yang, Xiaoqiang Wang, Ting Shi, Xinci Wu and Yuhua Xue

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5767; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195767 - 02 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1389

Abstract

The reactivity index of weight loss (RI) and tumbling strength after the reaction (I₁₀⁶⁰⁰) of manufacturing coke were first tested at a temperature series of 1100, 1200, and 1300 °C under CO₂ atmosphere with different compositions and duration times to study the effects of temperature, time, and gas composition on coke hot strength. Then the RI/I₁₀⁶⁰⁰, carbon structure, and optical texture of the cokes prepared from different single coals were mainly studied after a solution reaction with CO₂ under a high temperature of 1300 °C and a standard temperature of 1100 °C. It was found that temperature greatly affects the RI/I₁₀⁶⁰⁰ of coke, especially at high temperatures up to 1300 °C. Compared with standard tests under 1100 °C, the changes of RI/I₁₀⁶⁰⁰ for different cokes are very different at 1300 °C, and the changes are greatly related to coke optical texture. Under a high temperature in the testing method, the tumbling strength of cokes with more isotropy increased, whereas it decreased for those with less isotropy. This simple method of using high temperature could yield the same results when compared with complicated simulated blast furnace conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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15 pages, 9519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Binders on the Crushing Strength of Ferro-Coke

by Runsheng Xu, Shuliang Deng, Wei Wang, Heng Zheng, Shaopeng Chen, Xiaoming Huang and Fangfang Wang

Materials 2021, 14(4), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040850 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

Ferro-coke, as a new burden of blast furnace (BF), can not only greatly reduce the energy consumption and CO₂ emission, but also promote the resource utilization by using the low-quality iron ore and low-grade coal. However, the strength of ferro-coke decreased with the increasing amount of iron ore powder. In order to maintain the strength of ferro-coke while increasing the amount of iron ore powder, it is necessary to add binder during the coking process to enhance the strength of ferro-coke. In this paper, phenolic resin, silicon metal powder, corn starch, and coal tar pitch were used as binder for the fabrication of ferro-coke. I-type drum machine (I 600), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were applied to test the crushing strength, morphology, and microcrystalline structure of the ferro-coke. The results showed that the increasing amount of iron ore powder resulted in lower crushing strength, higher porosity, and the worse macroscopic morphology of ferro-coke. When the amount of iron ore powder reached 40%, obvious cracks appeared on the surface of ferro-coke. When the amount of iron ore was 30%, the crushing strength of ferro-coke dropped to 18.15%. Among the four binders, coal tar pitch could significantly enhance the cold crushing strength of ferro-coke through decreasing the porosity of ferro-coke and improving the bonding effect between carbon matrix particles. In the case of the 10% coal tar pitch addition, the cold crushing strength of ferro-coke was increased from 18.15% to 76.41%; meanwhile, its hot compression strength during gasification improved by 100N. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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12 pages, 3225 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Properties, Viscosity, and Structure of CaO–SiO₂–MgO–Al₂O₃–TiO₂–Based Slag

by Jinle Fang, Zhuogang Pang, Xiangdong Xing and Runsheng Xu

Materials 2021, 14(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010124 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1915

Abstract

The effect of TiO₂ and the MgO/Al₂O₃ ratio on the viscosity, heat capacity, and enthalpy change of CaO–SiO₂–Al₂O₃–MgO–TiO₂ slag at constant heat input was studied. The variation of slag structure was analyzed by the calculation of activation energy and FTIR spectrum measurements. The results showed that the heat capacity and enthalpy change of the slag decreased with the increase of TiO₂ content. Under constant heat supply, the fluctuations in slag temperature were relatively apparent, and the temperature of slag increased as the TiO₂ content increased. The viscosity of slag decreased due to the increase in slag temperature. Increasing the MgO/Al₂O₃ ratio could decrease the temperature and viscosity of slag. The effect of increasing the MgO/Al₂O₃ ratio on the viscosity was more pronounced than the decreasing temperature caused by increasing the MgO/Al₂O₃ ratio. The apparent activation energy decreased with increasing TiO₂ content and MgO/Al₂O₃ ratio. The Ti–O bonds formed with TiO₂ addition, and the Ti–O bonds were weaker than Si–O bonds, which resulted in the decrease in heat capacity and viscosity of slag. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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12 pages, 5599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Approach for Measuring the Thickness of Refractory of Metallurgical Vessels

by Yao Ge, Ying Li, Han Wei, Hao Nie, Weitian Ding, Yi Cao and Yaowei Yu

Materials 2020, 13(24), 5645; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13245645 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

The advancement of metallurgical vessels, such as blast furnaces, shaft furnaces, and torpedo ladles, can be better controlled and expanded for a greater lifespan if the thickness of the refractory lining wear is known and predicted. In the past, various methods including radioactive tracers, infrared (IR) thermography, electromagnetic waves, ultrasonic tomography, and temperature field have been tested to determine the thickness of the refractory wall. However, for various reasons, these methods have failed to be effective. This paper presents a novel method—electromotive force (EMF)—for predicting the thickness of refractory lining wear in vessels, including a small-scale vessel in the laboratory, an industrial torpedo ladle, and in the two refining hearths of blast furnaces. The experimental results show that the magnitude of the EMF signal increases with a decrease in wall thickness. Prediction values of the refractory wall thickness are consistent with measured ones. The relative error of EMF measurement for the torpedo ladle is around 6.8%. The EMF measurement of blast furnace hearths is quite accurate, and the relative error is less than 11%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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Review

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15 pages, 1760 KiB

Open AccessReview

Analysis of the Usability of Iron Ore Ultra-Fines for Hydrogen-Based Fluidized Bed Direct Reduction—A Review

by Thomas Wolfinger, Daniel Spreitzer and Johannes Schenk

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2687; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072687 - 06 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2659

Abstract

This review focuses on the usability of iron ore ultra-fines for hydrogen-based direct reduction. Such technology is driven by the need to lower CO₂ emissions and energy consumption for the iron and steel industry. In addition, low operational and capital expenditures and a high oxide yield because of the direct use of ultra-fines can be highlighted. The classification of powders for a fluidized bed are reviewed. Fluid dynamics, such as minimum fluidization velocity, entrainment velocity and fluidized state diagrams are summarized and discussed regarding the processing of iron ore ultra-fines in a fluidized bed. The influence of the reduction process, especially the agglomeration phenomenon sticking, is evaluated. Thus, the sticking determining factors and the solutions to avoid sticking are reviewed and discussed. The essential theoretical considerations and process-relevant issues are provided for the usability of iron ore ultra-fines for hydrogen-based fluidized bed direct reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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24 pages, 12581 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Characterization Methods for Metallurgical Coke Structures

by Heng Zheng, Runsheng Xu, Jianliang Zhang, Oday Daghagheleh, Johannes Schenk, Chuanhui Li and Wei Wang

Materials 2022, 15(1), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010174 - 27 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3383

Abstract

The structure of coke affects its reactivity and strength, which directly influences its performance in the blast furnace. This review divides coke structures into chemical structure, physical structure, and optical texture according to their relevant characteristics. The focuses of this review are the current characterization methods and research status of the coke structures. The chemical structures (element composition and functional group) can be characterized by elemental analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy (Raman), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging technology (13C NMR). The physical structures (pore structure and micro-crystallite structure) can be characterized by image method, X-ray CT imaging technique, mercury intrusion method, nitrogen gas adsorption method, X-ray diffraction method (XRD), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The optical textures are usually divided and counted by a polarizing microscope. In the end, this review provides an idea of the construction of a coke molecular structural model, based on the above characterization. With the coke model, the evolution principles of the coke can be calculated and simulated. Hence, the coke performance can be predicted and optimized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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19 pages, 5573 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on the Kinetics of Iron Ore Reduction by Hydrogen

by Aidin Heidari, Niusha Niknahad, Mikko Iljana and Timo Fabritius

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7540; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247540 - 09 Dec 2021

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 6252

Abstract

A clean energy revolution is occurring across the world. As iron and steelmaking have a tremendous impact on the amount of CO₂ emissions, there is an increasing attraction towards improving the green footprint of iron and steel production. Among reducing agents, hydrogen has shown a great potential to be replaced with fossil fuels and to decarbonize the steelmaking processes. Although hydrogen is in great supply on earth, extracting pure H₂ from its compound is costly. Therefore, it is crucial to calculate the partial pressure of H₂ with the aid of reduction reaction kinetics to limit the costs. This review summarizes the studies of critical parameters to determine the kinetics of reduction. The variables considered were temperature, iron ore type (magnetite, hematite, goethite), H₂/CO ratio, porosity, flow rate, the concentration of diluent (He, Ar, N₂), gas utility, annealing before reduction, and pressure. In fact, increasing temperature, H₂/CO ratio, hydrogen flow rate and hematite percentage in feed leads to a higher reduction rate. In addition, the controlling kinetics models and the impact of the mentioned parameters on them investigated and compared, concluding chemical reaction at the interfaces and diffusion of hydrogen through the iron oxide particle are the most common kinetics controlling models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Primary Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Towards Low Carbon Steel Production)

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