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Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "B: Energy and Environment".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 12911

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Marin Ugrina

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Split, Ruđera Boškovića 35, 21 000 Split, Croatia
Interests: environmental engineering, wastewater treatment proceses, heavy metals, sorption, zeolite, chemical modification of natural zeolite, soil and water remediation
Dr. Jelena Milojković

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Technology of Nuclear and Other Mineral Raw Materials, 86 Franchet d’Esperey St., Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: biosorption, water and wastewater treatment, environmental engineering, heavy metal pollution, material characterization, phytoremediation of uranium

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Certainly, the most significant and priceless natural resource that humans use comes from nature is water. The main source of fresh water for various purposes such as food and industrial production, human consumption, etc. is mainly groundwater. All water systems, in particular groundwater, are vulnerable since they are targets of pollution from natural, and more often anthropogenic sources, which makes them harmful to human health and the environment. Pollutants belong to various categories, from solid waste, heavy metals, organic pollutants (petroleum derivatives, dyes, etc.) to "new pollutants" such as pharmaceuticals.  In recent years, it has often been challenging to meet the required regulatory standards due to increasingly stringent requirements for maximum permissible pollutant concentrations in treated wastewater. For this reason, advanced knowledge is necessary and desirable in developing new advanced technologies or improving existing technologies at all levels of wastewater treatment (preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment). In addition to the need to obtain purified water, it is extremely important to consider the possibility of energy production (thermal, electrical) from wastewater treatment. Utilization of waste gases and sludge generated by wastewater treatment represents a sustainable approach to the cleaner energy production, contributing to the reduction of both, CO2 emissions and the use of fossil fuels. Ultimately, the production of cleaner water and energy through wastewater recycling is an important pathway to circular economy and sustainable development.

This Special Issue "Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2023" aims to collect original research papers as well as review articles on the latest developments and research efforts on this topic. We welcome experimental research, design and simulation, and environmental engineering aspects of physical, chemical and biological wastewater treatment processes and energy production.

Potential topics of interest may include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Energy conservation /recovery/production from wastewater treatment
  • Innovative water treatment process in energy generation
  • Design and operation of industrial wastewater bio-refinery
  • Assessment of industrial wastewater for future Bio-refinery
  • Electricity generation during industrial wastewater treatment
  • Physico-chemical wastewater treatment (chemical precipitation, coagulation/flocculation, adsorption, ion exchange, biosorption, disinfection)
  • Biological wastewater treatment (aerobic and anaerobic processes)
  • Batch and continuous sorption enhanced processes
  • Advanced aspects of wastewater treatment (application and development of new and alternative materials)
  • Innovative design, modeling and optimization of wastewater treatment processes
  • Electrochemical technologies (electrocoagulation/electroflocculation, electrodialysis)
  • Advanced membrane technologies (mico-, ultra-, nano-filtration, reverse osmosis)
  • Advanced oxidation processes (chemical, photochemical, sonochemical, photocatalytic processes)
  • Remediation processes
  • Sustainable green technologies
  • Development of new strategies for wastewater treatment
  • New developments in wastewater treatment technologies: the present situation
  • Future of circular economy of water – wastewater treatment
  • Other related topics

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Marin Ugrina
Dr. Jelena Milojković
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • energy production from wastewater treatment
  • physico-chemical and biological wastewater treatment
  • electrochemical technologies
  • advanced membrane technologies
  • advanced oxidation processes
  • environmentally friendly processes
  • advanced wastewater treatment

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 131 KiB  
Editorial
Advances in Wastewater Treatment, 2024
by Marin Ugrina and Jelena Milojković
Energies 2024, 17(6), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061400 - 14 Mar 2024
Viewed by 3034
Abstract
Water is undoubtedly the most important and invaluable natural resource that humans utilize [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)

Research

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14 pages, 1180 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Energy Efficiency Parameters of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants in Terms of Management Strategies and Carbon Footprint Reduction: Insights from Three Polish Facilities
by Iwona Kłosok-Bazan, Adam Rak, Joanna Boguniewicz-Zabłocka, Anna Kuczuk and Andrea G. Capodaglio
Energies 2024, 17(22), 5745; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225745 - 17 Nov 2024
Viewed by 298
Abstract
Water management in cities is a critical factor for sustainable growth and development. Satisfying the current needs with respect for the future is not possible without properly managed water and wastewater systems. An essential element of wastewater systems is the wastewater treatment plant [...] Read more.
Water management in cities is a critical factor for sustainable growth and development. Satisfying the current needs with respect for the future is not possible without properly managed water and wastewater systems. An essential element of wastewater systems is the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The nexus between wastewater treatments and energy demand is a well-known problem. In times of energy crisis, effective energy management in this critical infrastructure is a key task. The purpose of this article is to analyze WWTPs’ energy consumption with regard to proposed management strategies for managers, designers and decision makers. A detailed analysis of WWTP operational parameters and a proposal of improvement actions will be useful for applicability and benchmarking studies. Estimating the carbon footprint (CF) of selected WWTPs considering the indirect emissions due to energy consumption is an important step for developing energy neutrality of WWTPs. Due to the desire to deepen research in the area of a complex phenomenon, which is the energy management system in WWTPs, the research undertaken herein is based on the case study method of three water and sewage companies operating southwestern Poland. Each urban area has different specificities, natural conditions and needs. The presented results of the analyses may be the basis for developing directions for changes in national policy, other benchmarking studies, and improving the energy management system in WWTPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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23 pages, 6047 KiB  
Article
Uncalcined Zn/Al Carbonate LDH and Its Calcined Counterpart for Treating the Wastewater Containing Anionic Congo Red Dye
by Kuppusamy Manjula Rani, Pachagoundanpalayam Nachimuthugounder Palanisamy, Vennila Nagamuthu Kowshalya, Ayyasamy Tamilvanan, Rajendran Prabakaran and Sung Chul Kim
Energies 2024, 17(11), 2698; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112698 - 2 Jun 2024
Viewed by 605
Abstract
In this investigation, Zn/Al carbonate layered double hydroxide (ZAC-LDH) and its derived material on calcination were synthesized for removing the anionic azo dye Congo red (CR) from wastewater. Numerous factors were methodically investigated, including temperature, adsorbent dosage, pH, starting Dye Concentration (DC), and [...] Read more.
In this investigation, Zn/Al carbonate layered double hydroxide (ZAC-LDH) and its derived material on calcination were synthesized for removing the anionic azo dye Congo red (CR) from wastewater. Numerous factors were methodically investigated, including temperature, adsorbent dosage, pH, starting Dye Concentration (DC), and contact time. The CR elimination percentage dropped as the initial DC increased from 25 mg/L to 100 mg/L at 30 °C for uncalcined LDH, and from 97.96% to 89.25% for calcined LDH. The pH analysis indicates that the highest level of dye removal was recorded within the acidic pH range through the electrostatic attraction mechanism. The sorption kinetics analysis results demonstrated that the pseudo-second-order kinetic model exhibited a stronger fit to both uncalcined LDH and CZA-LDH, with the maximum correlation coefficient value. The Van’t Hoff plots indicate the spontaneous nature of the physisorption process with a negative ΔG° (<−20 kJ/mol), while the endothermic adsorption process exhibited a positive ΔH°. The X-ray diffraction of calcined LDH reveals a significant intercalation of CR dye molecules, both prior to and following adsorption, showcasing a distinctive memory effect. The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) gas sorption measurements were performed to support the mesoporous nature of ZAC-LDH and CZA-LDH. The FTIR spectrum confirms the interaction of dye molecules on the surface of uncalcined and calcined LDH. These findings emphasize the efficacy of both the synthesized LDHs in removing CR dye, with CZA-LDH demonstrating superior efficiency compared to uncalcined LDH in the context of CR removal from wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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19 pages, 1208 KiB  
Article
Performance Assessment of Venturi-Assisted Confined Tube Aerators with Varying Diameter
by Roohany Mahmud, Joseph Carpenter and David W. MacPhee
Energies 2024, 17(7), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17071733 - 4 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 914
Abstract
A significant amount of energy in wastewater treatment plants is spent on aeration to treat the organic matter with microorganisms in an oxygen-enriched environment. In this study, a novel and simplistic aeration concept known as Confined Tube Aeration (CTA) is proposed, in which [...] Read more.
A significant amount of energy in wastewater treatment plants is spent on aeration to treat the organic matter with microorganisms in an oxygen-enriched environment. In this study, a novel and simplistic aeration concept known as Confined Tube Aeration (CTA) is proposed, in which the main elements are a Venturi injector and a coiled tube at its outlet. Two Venturi injector diameters were chosen for evaluation in this study, measuring 1 inch (25.4 mm) and 4 inch (101.6 mm). In this study, a relationship was developed between air suction rate and pressure differential across the injector. Then, a numerical model was developed to analyze hydrodynamic conditions and evaluate system performance. The main findings are that the larger diameter aerator performs 20% better than the smaller injector in terms of standard aeration efficiency (SAE), with a maximal value of 0.74 kgO2/kWh found for the larger diameter system. These results suggest that future SAE improvements may be made for larger diameter systems in full-scale wastewater treatment applications with suitably designed injectors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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15 pages, 1394 KiB  
Article
Phosphorus Removal Rate and Efficiency in an Electrochemical Sequencing Reactor for the Treatment of Wastewater with Low Organic Carbon Content
by Artur Mielcarek, Kamil Łukasz Bryszewski, Joanna Rodziewicz, Karolina Kłobukowska and Wojciech Janczukowicz
Energies 2024, 17(6), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061352 - 12 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 878
Abstract
Energy is essential for the operation of wastewater treatment systems. Simultaneously, it can be a factor facilitating the electrochemical purification processes. Previous studies have shown that under specific conditions, there is no technological justification for using bio-electrochemical reactors designed for the simultaneous removal [...] Read more.
Energy is essential for the operation of wastewater treatment systems. Simultaneously, it can be a factor facilitating the electrochemical purification processes. Previous studies have shown that under specific conditions, there is no technological justification for using bio-electrochemical reactors designed for the simultaneous removal of both phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. This is because similar dephosphatation process effects can be achieved in an electrochemical reactor. Additionally, in a bio-electrochemical reactor, a portion of the organic substrate introduced for biological treatment is lost due to the electrocoagulation process. The aim of the research was to determine the influence of low direct current densities (0.4–2.0 A/m2) on the rate and efficiency of phosphorus and other compound removal in a sequencing electrochemical reactor treating real wastewater from a greenhouse with low organic compound content. In the conducted studies, an increase in electric current density resulted in an increase in the removal rates of phosphorus from 26.45 to 34.79 mg/L·h, nitrogen from 2.07 to 6.58 mg/L·h, and organic compounds from 0.44 to 1.50 mg/L·h. This corresponded to maximum removal efficiencies of 88.6 ± 2.5% for phosphorus, 7.4 ± 2.5% for nitrogen, and 51.1 ± 8.3% for organic compounds. As a result of electrocoagulation, sludge rich in phosphorus was obtained, ranging from 347 ± 38 mg/L (18.1% P) to 665 ± 36 mg/L (11.7% P). The obtained results can be utilized in the future for the development of two-stage systems for wastewater treatment with a low content of organic compounds, aiming at the removal of phosphorus and nitrogen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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31 pages, 9403 KiB  
Article
Treatment of Wastewater from Soil Washing with Soluble Humic Substances Using Biochars and Activated Carbon
by Mariusz Z. Gusiatin, Sylwia Pasieczna-Patkowska, Magdaléna Bálintová and Marcin Kuśmierz
Energies 2023, 16(11), 4311; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114311 - 24 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1676
Abstract
Energy can be obtained by pyrolysis of organic wastes, and the solid residue of pyrolysis (biochar) can be used as an adsorbent for the treatment of various types of wastewater. Although soil washing can effectively remediate metal-contaminated soils, it can generate significant amounts [...] Read more.
Energy can be obtained by pyrolysis of organic wastes, and the solid residue of pyrolysis (biochar) can be used as an adsorbent for the treatment of various types of wastewater. Although soil washing can effectively remediate metal-contaminated soils, it can generate significant amounts of soil washing wastewater (SWW). This study investigated the effectiveness of using activated carbon and various biochars to treat SWW from the remediation of soil heavily contaminated with cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) with soluble humic substances (SHS) from municipal sewage sludge. Willow biochar (BW), plant biomass biochar (BPB), coconut shell biochar (BCH), and Norit SX2 activated carbon (ACN) were tested at different dosages (12.5–100 g/L) and adsorption times (30–1440 min) for the treatment of SWW. At 100 g/L dosage, biochar removed Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn with 56–83%, 32–41%, 18–42%, 75–83%, and 44–83% efficiency, respectively, while ACN removed them with 87–95% efficiency. Only BW and ACN removed soluble organics with efficiencies of 49% and 94%, respectively, at the highest dosage. Adsorption of metals and soluble organics was mainly controlled by physisorption and chemisorption. Diffusion of metals and soluble organics into the different pore sizes was not the most important rate-limiting step. ACN and BW had better structural properties and treated SWW most effectively. BPB and BCH removed metals but not soluble organics, which could be beneficial for SHS recycling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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Review

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14 pages, 807 KiB  
Review
Methanogenesis—General Principles and Application in Wastewater Remediation
by Ana-Katarina Marić, Martina Sudar, Zvjezdana Findrik Blažević and Marija Vuković Domanovac
Energies 2024, 17(21), 5374; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215374 - 29 Oct 2024
Viewed by 569
Abstract
The first discovery of methanogens led to the formation of a new domain of life known as Archaea. The Archaea domain exhibits properties vastly different from previously known Bacteria and Eucarya domains. However, for a certain multi-step process, a syntrophic relationship between organisms [...] Read more.
The first discovery of methanogens led to the formation of a new domain of life known as Archaea. The Archaea domain exhibits properties vastly different from previously known Bacteria and Eucarya domains. However, for a certain multi-step process, a syntrophic relationship between organisms from all domains is needed. This process is called methanogenesis and is defined as the biological production of methane. Different methanogenic pathways prevail depending on substrate availability and the employed order of methanogenic Archaea. Most methanogens reduce carbon dioxide to methane with hydrogen through a hydrogenotrophic pathway. For hydrogen activation, a group of enzymes called hydrogenases is required. Regardless of the methanogenic pathway, electrons are carried between microorganisms by hydrogen. Naturally occurring processes, such as methanogenesis, can be engineered for industrial use. With the growth and emergence of new industries, the amount of produced industrial waste is an ever-growing environmental problem. For successful wastewater remediation, a syntrophic correlation between various microorganisms is needed. The composition of microorganisms depends on wastewater type, organic loading rates, anaerobic reactor design, pH, and temperature. The last step of anaerobic wastewater treatment is production of biomethane by methanogenesis, which is thought to be a cost-effective means of energy production for this renewable biogas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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16 pages, 11271 KiB  
Review
The Role of Solar Concentrators in Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment
by Joy Sankar Roy and Younès Messaddeq
Energies 2024, 17(16), 4001; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164001 - 13 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1373
Abstract
The global challenge of sustainable and affordable wastewater treatment technology looms large as water pollution escalates steadily with the rapid pace of industrialization and population growth. The photocatalytic wastewater treatment is a cutting-edge and environmentally friendly technology that uses photons from light source [...] Read more.
The global challenge of sustainable and affordable wastewater treatment technology looms large as water pollution escalates steadily with the rapid pace of industrialization and population growth. The photocatalytic wastewater treatment is a cutting-edge and environmentally friendly technology that uses photons from light source to degrade and remove organic and inorganic contaminants from water. Thus, utilizing solar energy for photocatalytic wastewater treatment holds great promise as a renewable solution to alleviate pressures on the global water crisis. Employing solar concentrators to intensify sunlight for photocatalysis represents a promising avenue for future applications of a low-cost and rapid sustainable wastewater purification process. This groundbreaking approach will unveil fresh technological avenues for a cost-effective, sustainable, and swift wastewater purification process utilizing sunlight. This review article explores diverse solar concentrating systems and their potential applications in the wastewater treatment process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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24 pages, 644 KiB  
Review
Modeling and Control Strategies for Energy Management in a Wastewater Center: A Review on Aeration
by Mukhammad Jamaludin, Yao-Chuan Tsai, Hao-Ting Lin, Chi-Yung Huang, Wonjung Choi, Jiang-Gu Chen and Wu-Yang Sean
Energies 2024, 17(13), 3162; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133162 - 27 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1123
Abstract
Effective modeling and management are critical in wastewater treatment facilities since the aeration process accounts for 65–70% of the overall energy consumption. This study assesses control strategies specifically designed for different sizes of WWTP, analyzing their economic, environmental, and energy-related effects. Small WWTPs [...] Read more.
Effective modeling and management are critical in wastewater treatment facilities since the aeration process accounts for 65–70% of the overall energy consumption. This study assesses control strategies specifically designed for different sizes of WWTP, analyzing their economic, environmental, and energy-related effects. Small WWTPs see advantages from the utilization of on/off and proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control methods, resulting in 10–25% energy savings and the reduction in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels by 5–30%. Cascade control and model predictive control (MPC) improve energy efficiency by 15–30% and stabilize DO levels by 15–35% in medium-sized WWTPs. Advanced WWTPs that utilize technologies such as MPC integrated with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) can decrease energy usage by 30–40% and enhance DO levels by 35–40%. Life cycle assessment (LCA) demonstrates substantial decreases in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions: 5–20% for small, 10–25% for medium, and 30–35% for large WWTPs. These findings illustrate the feasibility and expandability of these tactics in both controlled laboratory environments and real-world situations, emphasizing the significance of customized methods for improving energy efficiency and sustainability in wastewater treatment. Subsequent investigations should prioritize integrating renewable energy sources and resolving obstacles in developing nations to enhance wastewater treatment plants’ energy efficiency and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wastewater Treatment 2024)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Recent Advances in Wastewater Electrocoagulation Technologies: beyond Chemical Coagulation
Authors: Sangyeol Jo; Rahul Kadam; Heewon Jang; Dongyun Seo; Jungyu Park
Affiliation: Chosun University
Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the recent research trends and application cases of chemical coagulation (CC) and electrocoagulation (EC), which play a crucial role in the field of wastewater treatment. In addition to traditional CC methods, the principles, advantages, and efficiency of the emerging EC technology are compared and reviewed. EC offers the advantage of reducing the use of chemical agents and minimizing sludge generation compared to CC. Moreover, recent research cases have demonstrated its effectiveness in removing pollutants from wastewater. With increasing water consumption due to industrial development, the application of coagulation processes in wastewater and sludge treatment is expected to expand in order to minimize environmental impact. This review provides insights into the current status and future development direction of CC and EC and can serve as foundational information for the development of more efficient and environmentally friendly coagulation systems.

Title: Power generation in algae-assisted microbial fuel cell depending on the type of industrial wastewater
Authors: Paulina Rusanowska, Marcin Dębowski Marcin Zieliński*
Affiliation: Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-720, Olsztyn, Poland
Abstract: Photosynthetic microbial fuel cells (pMFC) are characterized by a combination of waste utilization and simultaneous recovery of energy and valuable materials. The generation of high current density is related to the high efficiency of electron transfer to the anode through the anodic biofilm and the high photosynthetic activity of the microalgae developed in the cathode chamber. In the review, the influence of the type of wastewater (characterized by low and high COD) on energy production and biofilm formation is discussed. In addition, issues related to the growth of microalgae in the anode chamber are discussed. Oxygen conditions (necessity of aeration) and sequestration of carbon dioxide from the anode chamber will also be addressed. The efficiency of microalgae in the utilization of nutrients from different types of wastewater is presented in detail. In summary, the comparison of wastewater treatment and the energy balance of pMFCs and wastewater treatment plants is described. On average, MFCs consume only 0.024 kW or 0.076 kWh/kg COD, which is about ten times less than the activated sludge bioprocess. This indicates that MFCs have a very efficient energy consumption compared to conventional wastewater treatment and at the same time recover energy via exoelectrogenic, bioelectrochemical processes.

Title: MODELING OF PHOSPHATE SORPTION PROCESS ON THE SURFACE OF ROCKFOS® MATERIAL USING LANGMUIR ISOTHERMS
Authors: Beata Zawadzka; Tadeusz Siwiec; Lidia Reczek; Michał Marzec; Krzysztof Jóźwiakowski
Affiliation: Department of Environmental Engineering and Geodesy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Abstract: This study aims to develop a mathematical description of the process of phosphate sorption on Rockfos material using the Langmuir isotherm and to determine the basic parameters for modeling the process. The Rockfos material is formed by thermal treatment of Opoka at 980°C and is highly reactive due to its significant calcium and silicon compounds content. The study included an evaluation of phosphate retention efficiency on the material as a function of phosphate concentration in the initial solution (0.5 mg/L, 1.0 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L), sorbent grain size (1.0-1.6 mm, 1.6-2.5 mm and 2.0-5.0 mm) and process temperature (5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C). It was found that an increase in process temperature and phosphate concentration in solution favored sorption, while the effect of sorbent grain size was ambiguous. It was shown that sorption is well described using the Langmuir linearization of the Langmuir model. Thermodynamic analysis and separation coefficient suggest that phosphorus sorption on Rockfos® material is primarily based on chemisorption, and the process is spontaneous over the entire temperature range and endothermic. The determined parameters of the tested material, especially qmax (maximum sorption capacity), provide a basis for the filter design for removing phosphate from wastewater, assuming its load in the inflow to the filter and the requirements specified for treated wastewater.

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