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4 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Vehicle and Traffic Safety

by Marek Guzek, Rafał S. Jurecki and Wojciech Wach

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4573; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134573 - 23 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1486

Abstract

The role of the road transportation of people and goods is increasing [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

20 pages, 10555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Influence of Motors Installed in Passenger Car Wheels on the Torsion Beam of the Rear Axle Suspension

by Piotr Dukalski, Bartłomiej Będkowski, Krzysztof Parczewski, Henryk Wnęk, Andrzej Urbaś and Krzysztof Augustynek

Energies 2022, 15(1), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010222 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2655

Abstract

The influence of mounting motors in wheels’ hubs and flexibility of the twist beam rear suspension on their dynamics and strength is presented in the paper. The international roughness indicator (IRI) is applied to assess the overcoming of road unevenness. This indicator is [...] Read more.

The influence of mounting motors in wheels’ hubs and flexibility of the twist beam rear suspension on their dynamics and strength is presented in the paper. The international roughness indicator (IRI) is applied to assess the overcoming of road unevenness. This indicator is a combination of a shape of the road unevenness and of overcoming velocity. The movement of a wheel’s axis during obstacles overcoming is described. For the needs of the dynamics analysis, the mathematical model of the rear suspension system with embedded motors is developed using the MSC.Adams-ANSYS interface. The discrete model of the twist beam is prepared in the ANSYS software, which is used in the next step to construct the dynamics model of the rear suspension system using the MSC.Adams program. The vertical components of displacement and acceleration of the wheel’s centre, forces in the suspension’s springs and dampers, as well as forces in the joints are analyzed. The analysis of the suspension beam’s stress during the road unevenness overcoming is also carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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11 pages, 9469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Obsolete or Viable? Revision of Lane-Change Manoeuvre Duration Empirical Calculation

by Roman Mikulec, Marek Semela, Albert Bradáč, Stanislav Tokař, Martin Bilík, Michal Křižák, Michal Belák, Robert Kledus, Andrej Haring and Vlastimil Rábek

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8439; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248439 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1844

Abstract

This study presents a calculation of the time required to execute a lane-change manoeuvre. Compared with other (and older) calculation methods, an analysis was conducted to determine which approach could yield the most reliable results. This study aimed to present a universal calculation [...] Read more.

This study presents a calculation of the time required to execute a lane-change manoeuvre. Compared with other (and older) calculation methods, an analysis was conducted to determine which approach could yield the most reliable results. This study aimed to present a universal calculation method for different road surfaces, surface conditions (dry and wet road surface), and vehicle types (i.e., from small vehicles to SUVs). A total of 108 comparable manoeuvres with modern vehicles were used as a basis for statistical analysis. A new mathematical constant was found based on a regression analysis, adjusting one of the older calculation methods (so-called Kovařík equation), providing the best match between real and calculated manoeuvre duration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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23 pages, 6165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Vehicle Driving Simulator from Perspective of Velocity and Trajectory Based Driving Behavior under Curve Conditions

by Liang Chen, Jiming Xie, Simin Wu, Fengxiang Guo, Zheng Chen and Wenqi Tan

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8429; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248429 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2410

Abstract

With their advantages of high experimental safety, convenient setting of scenes, and easy extraction of control parameters, driving simulators play an increasingly important role in scientific research, such as in road traffic environment safety evaluation and driving behavior characteristics research. Meanwhile, the demand [...] Read more.

With their advantages of high experimental safety, convenient setting of scenes, and easy extraction of control parameters, driving simulators play an increasingly important role in scientific research, such as in road traffic environment safety evaluation and driving behavior characteristics research. Meanwhile, the demand for the validation of driving simulators is increasing as its applications are promoted. In order to validate a driving simulator in a complex environment, curve road conditions with different radii are considered as experimental evaluation scenarios. To attain this, this paper analyzes the reliability and accuracy of the experimental vehicle speed of a driving simulator. Then, qualitative and quantitative analysis of the lateral deviation of the vehicle trajectory is carried out, applying the cosine similarity method. Furthermore, a data-driven method was adopted which takes the longitudinal displacement, lateral displacement, vehicle speed and steering wheel angle of the vehicle as inputs and the lateral offset as the output. Thus, a curve trajectory planning model, a more comprehensive and human-like operation, is established. Based on directional long short-term memory (Bi–LSTM) and a recurrent neural network (RNN), a multiple Bi–LSTM (Mul–Bi–LSTM) is proposed. The prediction performance of LSTM, MLP model and Mul–Bi–LSTM are compared in detail on the validation set and testing set. The results show that the Mul–Bi–LSTM model can generate a trajectory which is very similar to the driver’s curve driving and have a preferable generalization performance. Therefore, this method can solve problems which cannot be realized in real complex scenes in the simulator validation. Selecting the trajectory as the validation parameter can more comprehensively and intuitively reflect the simulator’s curve driving state. Using a speed model and trajectory model instead of a real car experiment can improve the efficiency of simulator validation and lay a foundation for the standardization of simulator validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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14 pages, 23646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Clearance on the Rocker Arm Pin on the Steerability and Stability of the Vehicle Motion

by Krzysztof Parczewski and Henryk Wnęk

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7827; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227827 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2235

Abstract

The article presents an analysis of the impact of a malfunction resulting from excessive clearance on the rocker arm pin of the front suspension on the vehicle’s steerability. The first part of the article presents an analysis of the influence of the clearance [...] Read more.

The article presents an analysis of the impact of a malfunction resulting from excessive clearance on the rocker arm pin of the front suspension on the vehicle’s steerability. The first part of the article presents an analysis of the influence of the clearance on the rocker arm pin on the geometry of the suspension and steering system. The occurrence of forces acting on the rocker arm pin in various phases of the vehicle motion was analyzed. To assess the vehicle’s steering, the vehicle’s response time to sudden steering wheel movement was used. The vehicle’s response time to sudden movement of the steering wheel was used to assess the vehicle’s steerability. The second part presents the results of bench tests and traction tests of a vehicle equipped with a specially made measuring rocker arm with the possibility of simulating a clearance. The tests were carried out on a class B passenger car in selected road tests. The results of measurements obtained for the roadworthy vehicle and the vehicle with the rocker arm with clearance were compared. The influence of the clearance on the rocker arm pin on the change of vehicle steerability in steady and dynamically changing conditions was analyzed. The test results show the effect of clearance on vehicle steering and on the vehicle steerability. The study tried to determine to what extent the clearance on the rocker arm affects the vehicle’s steerability and thus the safety in road traffic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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13 pages, 30338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Comfort and Safety Performance of Passenger Seats in Large City Buses

by Ivan Kernytskyy, Yevheniia Yakovenko, Orest Horbay, Maryana Ryviuk, Ruslan Humenyuk, Yaroslav Sholudko, Yurii Voichyshyn, Łukasz Mazur, Piotr Osiński, Konstantin Rusakov and Eugeniusz Koda

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7471; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227471 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4204

Abstract

A bus seat needs to be designed ergonomically for better seating comfort. The present study is intended to develop a cost-effective ergonomic bus seat design based on seat comfort and safety demands. As part of the proposed seat design procedure, seating comfort analysis, [...] Read more.

A bus seat needs to be designed ergonomically for better seating comfort. The present study is intended to develop a cost-effective ergonomic bus seat design based on seat comfort and safety demands. As part of the proposed seat design procedure, seating comfort analysis, identifying preferred design features, and developing a seat design are included. An analysis of the bus seat back and seat pan profiles was conducted. Based on the results of the comfort analysis, the authors identified the preferred design features of bus seats during the design identification process. An improved bus seat prototype was developed based on selected design features in the design development stage. Seating comfort analyses were used to compare the achieved seat with the reference seat. The seat design developed in the present study may be applicable for various types of bus public transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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15 pages, 1697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solar-Powered Active Road Studs and Highway Infrastructure: Effect on Vehicle Speeds

by Richard Llewellyn, Jonathan Cowie and Grigorios Fountas

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7209; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217209 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3293

Abstract

Vehicle speeds have a direct relationship with the severity of road crashes and may influence their probability of occurrence. Solar-powered active road studs have been shown to have a positive effect on driver confidence, but their impact on vehicle speed in conjunction with [...] Read more.

Vehicle speeds have a direct relationship with the severity of road crashes and may influence their probability of occurrence. Solar-powered active road studs have been shown to have a positive effect on driver confidence, but their impact on vehicle speed in conjunction with other road features is little understood. This study aims to address this gap in knowledge through a case study of a 20 km section of a strategic major road featuring a variety of highway infrastructure features. Before-and-after surveys were undertaken at 21 locations along the route using manual radar speed measurement. Analysis of nearly 10,000 speed measurements showed no statistically significant change in mean speeds following the implementation of the road studs. Linear regression models are proposed for two different posted speed limits, associating road features with expected vehicle speed. The models suggest that vehicle speeds are chiefly influenced by merges, curves, gradients, and ambient light conditions. The findings of this study should provide confidence that active road studs may be implemented without a negative impact on speed-related safety. The work also provides further expansion of the evidence base describing the effect of highway infrastructure features on vehicle speeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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33 pages, 8896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Impact of Countdown Signal Timers on Driving Behavior and Road Safety

by Tomasz Krukowicz, Krzysztof Firląg, Józef Suda and Mirosław Czerliński

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7081; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217081 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5080

Abstract

This article describes the safety and effectiveness issues related to signal countdown timers (SCT). These devices are used in many countries around the world. The impact of these devices on road safety and the effectiveness of traffic lights is presented. During a literature [...] Read more.

This article describes the safety and effectiveness issues related to signal countdown timers (SCT). These devices are used in many countries around the world. The impact of these devices on road safety and the effectiveness of traffic lights is presented. During a literature review, more than 18 aspects of device use were recognized. The research involved measurements carried out at three intersections in Płock (Poland). The initial and final period of the green signal for vehicles was analyzed. Headways, incidences of vehicles passing through after the end of the green signal, and red-light violations were examined. Additionally, a fuel consumption analysis and a case study of a road crash in Szczecin (Poland) are presented. Problems related to signal countdown timers working during traffic light failure are described. The research shows different influences of signal countdown timers at various intersections. It was observed that SCTs increase the number of red-light violations and during the red-amber signal. On the other hand, the number of entries during the amber signal with SCTs is lower. A literature review also indicated that the use of SCT causes a reduction of start-up time (positive impact) and increases vehicle speed (negative impact). The article concludes that SCTs do not always fulfill their role in improving road safety and control efficiency. Conclusions can address various stakeholders, including drivers, road authorities, and traffic engineers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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25 pages, 8390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are EDR Devices Undoubtedly Helpful in the Reconstruction of a Road Traffic Accident?

by Marek Guzek and Zbigniew Lozia

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6940; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216940 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2323

Abstract

All over the world, the vehicles introduced now into the market are usually provided with EDRs (Event Data Recorders), intended to measure and record the parameters that characterise the vehicle motion in the pre-, during-, and post-accident phases. The EDRs are to facilitate [...] Read more.

All over the world, the vehicles introduced now into the market are usually provided with EDRs (Event Data Recorders), intended to measure and record the parameters that characterise the vehicle motion in the pre-, during-, and post-accident phases. The EDRs are to facilitate the description and reconstruction of possible road accidents. They are patterned on aircraft “black boxes” (flight recorders). Many of them have simplified design, disregarding three (of six) vector components that describe the motion of the vehicle body solid. In the paper presented, the authors used simulation models built by themselves to represent motor vehicle dynamics and the reconstruction of vehicle trajectory and velocities based on records obtained from two EDR types: “aircraft” one (EDR1) and “simplified” one (EDR2). Using a simulation method, they examined the impact of the said simplifications mentioned above on the quality of reconstruction of vehicle motion for four typical manoeuvres in road traffic. The calculation results obtained for input data adopted to rep-resent a medium-class passenger car have shown that the simplifications may cause considerable reconstruction errors. This particularly applies to the manoeuvres where significant changes took place in the roll and pitch angles of the vehicle body solid (to which the EDR was fixed) or where the changes were characterised by absence of symmetry in the parameters that describe the manoeuvre and by the constant sign of the vehicle body roll angles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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18 pages, 40532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Design of a Custom Steering System in Cars and Verification of Its Correct Functioning

by Włodzimierz Choromański, Iwona Grabarek and Maciej Kozłowski

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6740; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206740 - 16 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2125

Abstract

The subject of this article is the design of a nonstandard steering system in cars. The applied methodology takes into account universal design, ensuring the greatest possible adaptation of the steering system to potential users, and at the same time, thanks to the [...] Read more.

The subject of this article is the design of a nonstandard steering system in cars. The applied methodology takes into account universal design, ensuring the greatest possible adaptation of the steering system to potential users, and at the same time, thanks to the specific nature of the designed steering device, it also assumes a special approach allowing for individual adjustment of the steering system to the needs and limitations of drivers with lower-limb disabilities. It is implemented through the “custom design” methodology. This article presents the impact of the design features of the multifunction steering wheel on the correctness of driving, as well as the level of load on selected muscles of the upper limbs responsible for operating the steering wheel. The tests were carried out on a dynamic simulator of a motor vehicle using the electromyography (EMG) technique, which enables the measurement of muscle load. A systemic approach to training and verifying the skills of drivers using new HMI solutions is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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12 pages, 9224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quasi-Static Research of ATV/UTV Non-Pneumatic Tires

by Jerzy Jackowski, Marcin Żmuda, Marcin Wieczorek and Andrzej Zuska

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6557; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206557 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2313

Abstract

The non-pneumatic tire (NPT) is a type of wheel whichdevelopment is related to the beginning of automotive development. The non-pneumatic tire (NPT) is a type of tire that does not contain compressed gases or fluid to provide directional control and traction. Nowadays, this [...] Read more.

The non-pneumatic tire (NPT) is a type of wheel whichdevelopment is related to the beginning of automotive development. The non-pneumatic tire (NPT) is a type of tire that does not contain compressed gases or fluid to provide directional control and traction. Nowadays, this type of wheel is more and more often used in special purpose vehicles, e.g., in military vehicles and working machines. The main feature of the non-pneumatic tire is a flexible support structure (including the part of the wheel between the tread and the rim). This paper presents the results of research aimed at determining the influence of the geometry of the NPT’s (intended for All-Terrain Vehicle–ATV/Utility Task Vehicle–UTV) load-bearing structure on its quasi-static directional characteristics. The experimental tests included the determination of the radial stiffness of research objects on a non-deformable flat surface and on a single obstacle, as well as the determination of the degree of deformation for the elastic structure and belt. The significant influence of the elastic structure’s shape and the elastomer, as the material forming the NPT, on its radial stiffness was revealed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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19 pages, 3225 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Unified Model Approach for Evaluating Different Electric Vehicles

by Wael Alosaimi, Md Tarique Jamal Ansari, Abdullah Alharbi, Hashem Alyami, Saquib Ali, Alka Agrawal and Raees Ahmad Khan

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6120; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196120 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3985

Abstract

Considering rising pollution as well as fuel expenses, it has now become critical to transition to a sustainable method of transportation. As a result, automakers have begun to spend on research and development in the electric vehicle (EV) industry. The amount of EVs [...] Read more.

Considering rising pollution as well as fuel expenses, it has now become critical to transition to a sustainable method of transportation. As a result, automakers have begun to spend on research and development in the electric vehicle (EV) industry. The amount of EVs has expanded rapidly in recent years. This is owing to new improved technology, particularly in electric motor engineering, as well as government initiatives to limit the level of environmental impact produced by combustion engines. Because EVs are powered by electricity, implementing their charging stations presents certain complications. In this paper, we have discussed the different types of EVs, such as BEVs, FCEVs, HEVs, PHEVs, and REHEVs. Even though the capacity of many of these electric car models has been substantially enhanced within the past few years, some challenges remain as a selection barrier for several customers. Considering these challenges, we have also implemented a fuzzy AHP-TOPSIS-based unified model to evaluate the different types of EVs. The study’s technical importance is the identification of various evaluation factors, implementation of a unified model for measuring performance, and computation using the fuzzy MCDM technique. The outcomes of the unified model approach also were validated. We concluded that FCEVs are excellent for long journeys, and have the resources to cause minimal disruption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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21 pages, 6454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hierarchical Autonomous Driver for a Racing Car: Real-Time Planning and Tracking of the Trajectory

by Margherita Montani, Leandro Ronchi, Renzo Capitani and Claudio Annicchiarico

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6008; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196008 - 22 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3353

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop trajectory planning that would allow an autonomous racing car to be driven as close as possible to what a driver would do, defining the most appropriate inputs for the current scenario. The search for the [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to develop trajectory planning that would allow an autonomous racing car to be driven as close as possible to what a driver would do, defining the most appropriate inputs for the current scenario. The search for the optimal trajectory in terms of lap time reduction involves the modeling of all the non-linearities of the vehicle dynamics with the disadvantage of being a time-consuming problem and not being able to be implemented in real-time. However, to improve the vehicle performances, the trajectory needs to be optimized online with the knowledge of the actual vehicle dynamics and path conditions. Therefore, this study involved the development of an architecture that allows an autonomous racing car to have an optimal online trajectory planning and path tracking ensuring professional driver performances. The real-time trajectory optimization can also ensure a possible future implementation in the urban area where obstacles and dynamic scenarios could be faced. It was chosen to implement a local trajectory planning based on the Model Predictive Control(MPC) logic and solved as Linear Programming (LP) by Sequential Convex Programming (SCP). The idea was to achieve a computational cost, 0.1 s, using a point mass vehicle model constrained by experimental definition and approximation of the car’s GG-V, and developing an optimum model-based path tracking to define the driver model that allows A car to follow the trajectory defined by the planner ensuring a signal input every 0.001 s. To validate the algorithm, two types of tests were carried out: a Matlab-Simulink, Vi-Grade co-simulation test, comparing the proposed algorithm with the performance of an offline motion planning, and a real-time simulator test, comparing the proposed algorithm with the performance of a professional driver. The results obtained showed that the computational cost of the optimization algorithm developed is below the limit of 0.1 s, and the architecture showed a reduction of the lap time of about 1 s compared to the offline optimizer and reproducibility of the performance obtained by the driver. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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14 pages, 674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Where Have I Heard It?” Assessing the Recall of Traffic Safety Campaigns in the Dominican Republic

by Francisco Alonso, Mireia Faus, Cesáreo Fernández and Sergio A. Useche

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5792; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185792 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2798

Abstract

Although traffic crashes are the eighth leading cause of death in the world, and are linked to vehicle and infrastructure-related factors, crash-related fatality rates are much higher in low-income countries. Particularly, the Dominican Republic is the country with the highest accident rate in [...] Read more.

Although traffic crashes are the eighth leading cause of death in the world, and are linked to vehicle and infrastructure-related factors, crash-related fatality rates are much higher in low-income countries. Particularly, the Dominican Republic is the country with the highest accident rate in the whole American continent. Therefore, in the past few years, public agencies have been developing different measures aimed at reducing traffic fatalities, including road safety campaigns. The aim of the present study was to assess the recalling of such campaigns among the Dominican population, which may serve as an additional indicator to evaluate their effectiveness in this and other countries of the region presenting similar traffic safety issues. For this cross-sectional study, a nationwide sample composed of 1260 people (50% males and 50% females) with a mean age of 39.3 years was used. The data were collected through personal interviews. Overall, the recall of traffic safety campaigns was found to be very low (9%); male drivers who were employed, possessed a driver’s license and habitually drove were the ones who could commonly remember these campaigns. The results of this study suggest that further evaluation and follow-up could help to maximize the impact of future traffic campaigns and advertisements in the Dominican Republic, as well as in other emerging countries of the region with similar characteristics. Further, key segments of the population such as the female, young, less formally educated and non-driving populations should be also targeted for further actions in this regard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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16 pages, 832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Social Acceptance for Autonomous Vehicles in Southeastern Poland

by Agnieszka Dudziak, Monika Stoma, Andrzej Kuranc and Jacek Caban

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5778; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185778 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

New technologies reaching out for meeting the needs of an aging population in developed countries have given rise to the development and gradual implementation of the concept of an autonomous vehicle (AV) and have even made it a necessity and an important business [...] Read more.

New technologies reaching out for meeting the needs of an aging population in developed countries have given rise to the development and gradual implementation of the concept of an autonomous vehicle (AV) and have even made it a necessity and an important business paradigm. However, in parallel, there is a discussion about consumer preferences and the willingness to pay for new car technologies and intelligent vehicle options. The main aim of the study was to analyze the impact of selected factors on the perception of the future of autonomous cars by respondents from the area of Southeastern Poland in terms of a comparison with traditional cars, with particular emphasis on the advantages and disadvantages of this concept. The research presented in this study was conducted in 2019 among a group of 579 respondents. Data analysis made it possible to identify potential advantages and disadvantages of the concept of introducing autonomous cars. A positive result of the survey is that 68% of respondents stated that AV will be gradually introduced to our market, which confirms the high acceptance of this technology by Poles. The obtained research results may be valuable information for governmental and local authorities, but also for car manufacturers and their future users. It is an important issue in the area of shaping the strategy of actions concerning further directions of development on the automotive market. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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13 pages, 1278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of All-Night Driving on Selective Attention in Professional Truck Drivers: A Preliminary Functional Magnetic Resonance Study

by Stefan P. Gazdzinski, Marek Binder, Alicja Bortkiewicz, Paulina Baran and Łukasz Dziuda

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5409; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175409 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2361

Abstract

Fatigue affects multiple aspects of cognitive performance among drivers. However, even after fatigue builds up, some are still able to maintain the level of behavioral performance. To evaluate these adaptations on the neural network level, we utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Seventeen [...] Read more.

Fatigue affects multiple aspects of cognitive performance among drivers. However, even after fatigue builds up, some are still able to maintain the level of behavioral performance. To evaluate these adaptations on the neural network level, we utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Seventeen male professional drivers underwent two fMRI sessions, once while rested and once in a fatigued condition after 10-h of overnight driving. The cognitive task used in the study involved the detection of visual feature conjunctions, namely the shape and the color. There were no significant differences in the task performance between the conditions except for longer reaction times in the fatigued condition. However, we observed substantial differences in the activation patterns during the cognitive task involving selective attention between the conditions. On the global level, we observed a general decrease in activation strength in the fatigued condition, which appeared to be more pronounced in the left hemisphere. On the local level, we observed a (spatially) extended activation of the medial prefrontal regions in the fatigued condition, which reflected increased cognitive control mechanisms compensating for the diminished efficiency of mechanisms involved in meeting task demands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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16 pages, 14235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tactile Occupant Detection Sensor for Automotive Airbag

by Naveen Shirur, Christian Birkner, Roman Henze and Thomas M. Deserno

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5288; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175288 - 26 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3252

Abstract

Automotive airbags protect occupants from crash forces during severe vehicle collisions. They absorb energy and restrain the occupants by providing a soft cushion effect known as the restraint effect. Modern airbags offer partial restraint effect control by controlling the bag’s vent holes and [...] Read more.

Automotive airbags protect occupants from crash forces during severe vehicle collisions. They absorb energy and restrain the occupants by providing a soft cushion effect known as the restraint effect. Modern airbags offer partial restraint effect control by controlling the bag’s vent holes and providing multi-stage deployment. Full restraint effect control is still a challenge because the closed-loop restraint control system needs airbag–occupant contact and interaction feedback. In this work, we have developed novel single and matrix capacitive tactile sensors to measure the occupant’s contact data. They can be integrated with the airbag surface and folded to follow the dynamic airbag shape during the deployment. The sensors are tested under a low-velocity pendulum impact and benchmarked with high-speed test videos. The results reveal that the single sensor can successfully measure occupant–airbag contact time and estimate the area, while the contact position is additionally identified from the matrix sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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19 pages, 522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Infrastructure Planning for Autonomous Electric Vehicles, Integrating Safety and Sustainability Aspects: A Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach

by Konstantina Anastasiadou, Nikolaos Gavanas, Magda Pitsiava-Latinopoulou and Evangelos Bekiaris

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5269; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175269 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3402

Abstract

After the awareness-raising of recent years for coping with the global societal, economic and environmental challenges, the need for sustainable planning in the transport sector has become even more evident. Initiatives aiming at promoting sustainable and innovative mobility solutions, especially in urban areas [...] Read more.

After the awareness-raising of recent years for coping with the global societal, economic and environmental challenges, the need for sustainable planning in the transport sector has become even more evident. Initiatives aiming at promoting sustainable and innovative mobility solutions, especially in urban areas where mobility needs are higher and transport problems are more intense, have been launched by different organizations around the world. In this context, autonomous electric vehicles are emerging as a promising solution; however, they are accompanied by new infrastructure requirements, along with safety concerns. Policymakers will be confronted with an array of choices, such as plug-in or wireless, dynamic or stationary charging and mixed flow with conventional vehicles or dedicated lanes, taking into account the uncertain impacts of innovation on safety and sustainability. Within this scope, these infrastructure alternatives are evaluated and prioritized, for the first time, in the present study, through the combined application of two hybrid multi-criteria analysis models, with the participation of experts. The analysis is based on a set of safety and sustainability criteria. Road safety and exposure to electromagnetic radiation emerge as the most important criteria, with the optimum solution—based on current data—consisting of plug-in charging and the circulation of autonomous electric vehicles in dedicated lanes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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17 pages, 5909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Effect of Mass Parameters on Motorcycle Vibration and Stability

by Andrzej Dębowski

Energies 2021, 14(16), 5090; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165090 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3255

Abstract

This paper presents a vibration analysis method and an example of its application to evaluate the influence of mass parameters on torsional vibration frequencies in the steering system of a motorcycle. The purpose of this paper is to analyze to what extent vibration [...] Read more.

This paper presents a vibration analysis method and an example of its application to evaluate the influence of mass parameters on torsional vibration frequencies in the steering system of a motorcycle. The purpose of this paper is to analyze to what extent vibration frequencies can change during their daily operation. These changes are largely due to the ratio of vehicle weight to driver and load. The complex dynamics make it very difficult to conduct research using simple models. It is difficult to observe the influence of individual parameters because they are strongly interrelated. This paper provides a description of the vibration analysis method, and the results are presented in the form of Bode diagrams and tables. On this basis, it was found that the driver, deciding on the way of using the vehicle and introducing modifications in it, influences the resonant frequencies of the steering system. Typical exploitation factors, on the other hand, do not cause significant changes, although they may contribute to increasing the sensitivity of the system to vibrations. The conducted analysis also showed some nonlinear changes in the dynamics of the system with linear changes of the parameter values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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19 pages, 6059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Image Correction and Optimization of Mounting Positions of Dual Cameras for Vehicle Test

by Si-Ho Lee, Bong-Ju Kim and Seon-Bong Lee

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4857; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164857 - 9 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2009

Abstract

Among surrounding information-gathering devices, cameras are the most accessible and widely used in autonomous vehicles. In particular, stereo cameras are employed in academic as well as practical applications. In this study, commonly used webcams are mounted on a vehicle in a dual-camera configuration [...] Read more.

Among surrounding information-gathering devices, cameras are the most accessible and widely used in autonomous vehicles. In particular, stereo cameras are employed in academic as well as practical applications. In this study, commonly used webcams are mounted on a vehicle in a dual-camera configuration and used to perform lane detection based on image correction. The height, baseline, and angle were considered as variables for optimizing the mounting positions of the cameras. Then, a theoretical equation was proposed for the measurement of the distance to the object, and it was validated via vehicle tests. The optimal height, baseline, and angle of the mounting position of the dual camera configuration were identified to be 40 cm, 30 cm, and 12°, respectively. These values were utilized to compare the performances of vehicles in stationary and driving states on straight and curved roads, as obtained by vehicle tests and theoretical calculations. The comparison revealed the maximum error rates in the stationary and driving states on a straight road to be 3.54% and 5.35%, respectively, and those on a curved road to be 9.13% and 9.40%, respectively. It was determined that the proposed method is reliable because the error rates were less than 10%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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23 pages, 6116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parameters Influencing on Electric Vehicle Range

by Emilia M. Szumska and Rafał S. Jurecki

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4821; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164821 - 7 Aug 2021

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6753

Abstract

There is a range of anxiety-related phenomena among users and potential buyers of electric vehicles. Chief among them is the fear of the vehicle stopping and its users getting “stuck” before reaching their designated destination. The limited range of an electric vehicle makes [...] Read more.

There is a range of anxiety-related phenomena among users and potential buyers of electric vehicles. Chief among them is the fear of the vehicle stopping and its users getting “stuck” before reaching their designated destination. The limited range of an electric vehicle makes EV users worry that the battery will drain while driving and the vehicle will stall on the road. It is therefore important to know the factors that could further reduce the range during daily vehicle operation. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of selected parameters on a battery’s depth of discharge (DOD). In a simulation study of an electric vehicle, the effects of the driving cycle, ambient temperature, load, and initial state of charge of the accumulator on the energy consumption pattern and a battery’s depth of discharge (DOD) were analyzed. The simulation results confirmed that the route taken has the highest impact on energy consumption. The presented results show how significantly the operating conditions of an electric vehicle affect the energy life. This translates into an electric vehicle’s range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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19 pages, 2611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Future of Autonomous Vehicles in the Opinion of Automotive Market Users

by Monika Stoma, Agnieszka Dudziak, Jacek Caban and Paweł Droździel

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4777; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164777 - 6 Aug 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5504

Abstract

Contemporary trends are focused on the development of the so-called smart, connected and multimedia cars as well as actions in the field of driving autonomy, and these trends may lead to changes in the structure of the industry through the emergence and growth [...] Read more.

Contemporary trends are focused on the development of the so-called smart, connected and multimedia cars as well as actions in the field of driving autonomy, and these trends may lead to changes in the structure of the industry through the emergence and growth of the importance of new entities. The article presents the concept of autonomous vehicles (AVs) and the way it is perceived by users of traditional cars. Surveys were carried out in various age groups on the possibilities of developing AVs in Poland. The group of respondents were inhabitants of a rural area, small towns and cities with over 300,000 inhabitants. Based on our own research, it can be concluded that, due to many different factors, including costs, legal regulations and conviction, among others, AVs will not appear so soon in common use on Polish roads. The results of the research showed that the majority of respondents consider hybrid vehicles (HVs) and then electric vehicles (EVs) to be the dominant type of vehicles in the near future in Poland, at the same time pointing at the long process of adopting AV technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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15 pages, 1610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parking Pose Generation for Autonomous Freight Collection by Pallet Handling Car-like Robot

by Khayyam Masood, David Pérez Morales, Vincent Fremont, Matteo Zoppi and Rezia Molfino

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4677; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154677 - 1 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

This paper focuses on autonomous navigation for an electric freight vehicle designed to collect freight autonomously using pallet handling robots installed in the vehicle. Apart from autonomous vehicle navigation, the primary hurdle for vehicle autonomy is the autonomous collection of freight irrespective of [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on autonomous navigation for an electric freight vehicle designed to collect freight autonomously using pallet handling robots installed in the vehicle. Apart from autonomous vehicle navigation, the primary hurdle for vehicle autonomy is the autonomous collection of freight irrespective of freight orientation/location. This research focuses on generating parking pose for the vehicle irrespective of the orientation of freight for its autonomous collection. Freight orientation is calculated by capturing the freight through onboard sensors. Afterward, this information creates a parking pose using mathematical equations and knowledge of the vehicle and freight collection limitations. Separate parking spots are generated for separate loading bays of the vehicle depending on the availability of the loading bay. Finally, results are captured and verified for different orientations of freight to conclude the research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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15 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Lane Marking Detection Quality and View Range between Daytime and Night-Time Conditions by Machine Vision

by Darko Babić, Dario Babić, Mario Fiolić, Arno Eichberger and Zoltan Ferenc Magosi

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4666; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154666 - 1 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2396

Abstract

Lateral support systems in vehicles have a high potential for reduction of lane departure crashes. To profit from their full potential, such systems should function properly in adverse conditions. Literature indicates that their accuracy varies between day and night-time. However, detailed quantifications of [...] Read more.

Lateral support systems in vehicles have a high potential for reduction of lane departure crashes. To profit from their full potential, such systems should function properly in adverse conditions. Literature indicates that their accuracy varies between day and night-time. However, detailed quantifications of the systems’ performance in these conditions are rare. The aim of this study is to investigate the differences in detection quality and view range of Mobileye 630 in dry daytime and night-time conditions. On-road tests on four rural road sections in Croatia were conducted. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to test the difference between the number of quality rankings while absolute average, average difference and standard deviation were used to analyse the view range. Also, a paired samples t-test was used to test the difference between conditions for each line on each road. The overall results confirm that a significant difference in lane detection quality view range exists between tested conditions. “Medium” and “high” detection confidence (quality level 3 and 2), increased by 5% and 8% during night-time compared to daytime while level 0 (“nothing detected”) decreased by 12%. The view range increased (almost 16% for middle line) during daytime compared to night-time. The findings of this study expand the existing knowledge and are valuable for research and development of machine-vision systems but also for road authorities to optimize the markings’ quality performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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20 pages, 4438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measures of Functional Reliability of Two-Lane Highways

by Krzysztof Ostrowski and Marcin Budzynski

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4577; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154577 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2575

Abstract

Rural two-lane highways are the most common road type both in Poland and globally. In terms of kilometres, their length is by far greater than that of motorways and expressways. They are roads of one carriageway for each direction, which makes the overtaking [...] Read more.

Rural two-lane highways are the most common road type both in Poland and globally. In terms of kilometres, their length is by far greater than that of motorways and expressways. They are roads of one carriageway for each direction, which makes the overtaking of slower vehicles possible only when there is a gap in the stream of traffic moving from the opposite direction. Motorways and express roads are dual carriageways that are expected to support high speed travel mainly over long distances. Express roads have somewhat lower technical parameters and a lower speed limit than motorways. Two-lane highways are used for both short- and long-distance travel. The paper presents selected studies conducted in Poland in 2016–2018 on rural two-lane highways and focuses on the context of the need for their reliability. The research was carried out on selected short and longer road sections located in various surroundings, grouped in terms of curvature change rate CCR, longitudinal slopes and cross-sections (width of lanes and shoulders). The studies of traffic volumes, travel time and travel speed, as well as traffic density, will be used to analyze traffic performance and identify measures of travel time reliability. The analyzed roads were characterized by good technical parameters and significant variability of traffic volume throughout the day, week and year. Some roads experience congestion, i.e., situations in which traffic volume Q is close to or above respective road capacity C. In order to determine the form of the suitable reliability measures, it will be important to determine the extent to which a road’s geometric and traffic characteristics impact travel speed and time. The paper presents well-known reliability measures for dual carriageways and proposes new measures, along with an evaluation of their usefulness in the assessment of the functioning of two-lane highways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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21 pages, 5668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Striated Tire Yaw Marks—Modeling and Validation

by Wojciech Wach and Jakub Zębala

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4309; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144309 - 17 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3091

Abstract

Tire yaw marks deposited on the road surface carry a lot of information of paramount importance for the analysis of vehicle accidents. They can be used: (a) in a macro-scale for establishing the vehicle’s positions and orientation as well as an estimation of [...] Read more.

Tire yaw marks deposited on the road surface carry a lot of information of paramount importance for the analysis of vehicle accidents. They can be used: (a) in a macro-scale for establishing the vehicle’s positions and orientation as well as an estimation of the vehicle’s speed at the start of yawing; (b) in a micro-scale for inferring among others things the braking or acceleration status of the wheels from the topology of the striations forming the mark. A mathematical model of how the striations will appear has been developed. The model is universal, i.e., it applies to a tire moving along any trajectory with variable curvature, and it takes into account the forces and torques which are calculated by solving a system of non-linear equations of vehicle dynamics. It was validated in the program developed by the author, in which the vehicle is represented by a 36 degree of freedom multi-body system with the TMeasy tire model. The mark-creating model shows good compliance with experimental data. It gives a deep view of the nature of striated yaw marks’ formation and can be applied in any program for the simulation of vehicle dynamics with any level of simplification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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19 pages, 6335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Methodology for Evaluating Driving Styles in Various Road Conditions

by Rafał S. Jurecki and Tomasz L. Stańczyk

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3570; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123570 - 16 Jun 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2889

Abstract

For many institutions, it is important to evaluate a given driving technique as safe or unsafe based on measurable vehicle movement parameters. The paper constitutes a part of studies aimed at establishing a method of parameter-based evaluation of drivers in various road conditions, [...] Read more.

For many institutions, it is important to evaluate a given driving technique as safe or unsafe based on measurable vehicle movement parameters. The paper constitutes a part of studies aimed at establishing a method of parameter-based evaluation of drivers in various road conditions, in other words, to create a so-called ‘driver profile’. The tests were carried out on a 650 km route, on four varying road types. Longitudinal and lateral acceleration values are used to evaluate the driving style. An analysis is presented of the impact of the type and shape of road on acceleration values. The results demonstrate that the same driver, when driving the same vehicle on an expressway, an inter-urban road or in urban traffic, will move with various acceleration values. A detailed analysis of acceleration values and distributions was conducted. Interesting conclusions were drawn after excluding the so-called ‘smooth driving’ sections, by acceleration ranges of −0.5 to 0.5 m/s² from the analysis. This allowed for the evaluation of the structure of other longitudinal and lateral acceleration values. After this modification, the distributions showed specificity for the given road type, thereby allowing the road type used by the vehicle’s driver to be recognized based solely on the distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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21 pages, 2164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Influence of Road Infrastructure Parameters on the Behaviour of Drivers and Pedestrians in Pedestrian Crossing Areas

by Marcin Budzynski, Anna Gobis, Lucyna Guminska, Lukasz Jelinski, Mariusz Kiec and Piotr Tomczuk

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3559; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123559 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3373

Abstract

Pedestrians are participants and, most likely, fatalities in every third road traffic accident in Poland. Over 30% of all fatalities on Polish roads are pedestrians. Accidents with pedestrians are very often the result of various factors related to the infrastructure and behaviour of [...] Read more.

Pedestrians are participants and, most likely, fatalities in every third road traffic accident in Poland. Over 30% of all fatalities on Polish roads are pedestrians. Accidents with pedestrians are very often the result of various factors related to the infrastructure and behaviour of pedestrians and drivers. The objective of the work was to assess driver and pedestrian behaviour in pedestrian crossing areas. The research also served as a pilot study for similar work to be conducted across Poland, and constituted the basis for monitoring the behaviour of road users in the area of pedestrian crossings. Parameters which must be analysed were identified on the basis of field studies. Principles of selecting test sites were adopted, and measurement methods for pedestrian crossing areas are presented. The influence of the location of the selected test cross-section infrastructure parameters on the behaviour of road users in pedestrian crossing areas is demonstrated. The results of the study will be used as a basis for new solutions involving pedestrian crossing infrastructure designed to improve pedestrian safety. The results were also used in formulating new regulations for the design and maintenance of pedestrian crossings and recommendations for road safety auditors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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31 pages, 11258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Control System Model Parameters on the Obstacle Avoidance by an Autonomous Car-Trailer Unit: Research Results

by Leon Prochowski, Mateusz Ziubiński, Patryk Szwajkowski, Mirosław Gidlewski, Tomasz Pusty and Tomasz Lech Stańczyk

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2958; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102958 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2837

Abstract

The introduction of autonomous cars will help to improve road traffic safety, and the use of a cargo trailer improves the energy efficiency of transport. One of the critical (collision) road situations has been considered, where immediate counteraction is required in a space [...] Read more.

The introduction of autonomous cars will help to improve road traffic safety, and the use of a cargo trailer improves the energy efficiency of transport. One of the critical (collision) road situations has been considered, where immediate counteraction is required in a space that has been only partly defined. This research work was aimed at determining the impact of the trajectory planning method and the values of some parameters of the control system on the feasibility of safe avoidance of an obstacle that has suddenly appeared. The obstacle is assumed to be a motor vehicle moving on a road intersection along a collision path in relation to the autonomous car-trailer unit (CT unit) travelling at high speed. Analysis of cooperation between several non-linear models (representing the car, trailer, tyre–road interaction, and driving controller) has been carried out. Mathematical models of the control system and the CT unit have been built. The process of selection of temporary and variable parameters, applied to the control system for the time of the critical situation under consideration, has been shown. The research work carried out has made it possible to recommend appropriate parameter values for the control system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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13 pages, 15723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Head of a Simulation Crash Test Dummy with Speed Motion

by Marek Jaśkiewicz, Damian Frej, Jan Matej and Rafał Chaba

Energies 2021, 14(5), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14051476 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4025

Abstract

The article presents a model of an anthropometric dummy designed for low velocity crash tests, designed in ADAMS. The model consists of rigid bodies connected with special joints with appropriately selected stiffness and damping. The simulation dummy has the appropriate dimensions, shape, and [...] Read more.

The article presents a model of an anthropometric dummy designed for low velocity crash tests, designed in ADAMS. The model consists of rigid bodies connected with special joints with appropriately selected stiffness and damping. The simulation dummy has the appropriate dimensions, shape, and mass of individual elements to suit a 50 percentile male. The purpose of this article is to draw attention to low speed crash tests. Current dummies such as THOR and Hybrid III are used for crash tests at speeds above 40 km/h. In contrast, the low-speed test dummy currently used is the BioRID-II dummy, which is mainly adapted to the whiplash test at speeds of up to 16km/h. Thus, it can be seen that there is a gap in the use of crash test dummies. There are no low-speed dummies for side and front crash tests, and there are no dummies for rear crash tests between 16 km/h and 25 km/h. Which corresponds to a collision of a passenger vehicle with a hard obstacle at a speed of 30 km/h. Therefore, in collisions with low speeds of 20 km/h, the splash airbag will probably not be activated. The article contains the results of a computer simulation at a speed of 20 km/h vehicle out in the ADAMS program. These results were compared with the experimental results of the laboratory crash test using volunteers and the Hybrid III dummy. The simulation results are the basis for building the physical model dummy. The simulation aims to reflect the greatest possible compliance of the movements of individual parts of the human body during a collision at low speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)

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